The Senate was the organ of power in ancient Rome. It first appeared in the royal era as a national advisory body, composed of the elders of the wealthy nobles of the clan, that is, the Council of Elders. During the Republic, it was composed of former governors and representatives of other great slave owners, who held the power to rule, and had the power to approve and approve laws, approve the elected supreme officials, manage finances, diplomacy, and the military, and implement major religious measures. During the imperial period, power was increasingly centralized in the emperor, and the Senate lost its original political status, but remained the political backbone of aristocratic rule.
At the beginning of the Roman Republic, Brutus increased the number of senators to three hundred. During the royal era, only the heads of noble families were allowed to enter the Senate, and according to the Ovinia Law, the members of the Senate were chosen from among the best of the former high officials (consuls, procurators, chancellors, etc.). As commoners gained various high-ranking positions, the number of people entering the Senate increased rapidly, and the power of the nobility shrank day by day. At the same time, these high-ranking retired officials were politically experienced and socially prestigious, which raised the status of the Senate; Coupled with the small number of members of the Senate, it was more convenient to hold meetings than the Assemblies of the Nobles and the Army, and the Senate was even more prominent.
Until 123 BCE, all the senators were also knightly and the two classes were separated by legislation, and the latter was designated as the economic class of knights (Ordo Equester). In Roman politics, members of the knightly economic class had a strong plutocratic political power, and their commercial activities were unrestricted. The sons of the senators, as well as non-senator members of other senate families, were included in the knightly economic class, and they were entitled to wear short-sleeved tunics with purple stripes as a symbol of their original membership in the Senate.
1. The Rise and Crisis of the Roman Republic
The Roman republic was an important period in the political history of ancient Rome, characterized by the decentralization of political power, citizen participation, and the principles of the rule of law. At its peak, Rome grew into a vast empire, but faced internal strife, social hierarchy, and military problems. The collapse of the republic created the conditions for the establishment of the Roman Empire. Political institutions and institutions include the separation of powers, the parliamentary system and the participation of social classes. Internal and external wars, internal struggles and the rise of political factions, and political corruption have accelerated its decline. The Roman republic had a profound impact on Western political systems, reminding us of the need to continuously improve our political systems to meet the challenges.
The Roman Republic was an important period in the political history of ancient Rome, and its prosperity laid the foundation for the development of the Roman Empire. The characteristics of the Roman republic include the decentralization of political power, citizen participation, rotation of positions, the principle of the rule of law and social hierarchy, among others. Under this political system, the Roman Republic rose rapidly, growing from a small city-state to a vast Mediterranean empire. However, the republic also faced various crises that gradually threatened its stability.
The rise of the Roman republic stemmed from its unique political and social system. The decentralization of political power allows different institutions and positions to check and balance each other, avoiding the problem of excessive concentration of power. Citizen participation is an important feature of a republic, in which citizens express their opinions and vote on decisions in popular meetings, which gives the government's decision-making a wide range of participation and legitimacy. The system of rotation of positions guarantees the alternation of power and a smooth transition, avoiding a long period of personal tyranny.
However, the Roman republic also faced a series of crises. Internal strife and the rise of political factions have led to political chaos and instability.
The growing gap between rich and poor in society has led to increased social discontent and conflict. The weakening of the army and the problem of military service became a major challenge to the republic, and the expansion of the war led to a shortage of soldiers and a decline in morale. At the same time, political corruption permeates all levels of the republic, undermining the legitimacy and effectiveness of government.
These crises gradually weakened the stability of the Roman republic and laid the groundwork for the establishment of the Roman Empire. Although the republic occupied an important place in Roman history, its decline and collapse eventually created the conditions for the emergence of a new form of politics – the Roman Empire.
The political system and institutions of the republic
The political institutions and institutions of a republic include the separation of powers and the parliamentary system, the bureaucracy and politicians, the evolution of social classes and political participation, the principles of law and the rule of law, elections and rotation of positions, the military system and commanders, and civil rights and suffrage. Together, these aspects formed the core of the Roman Republic.
The principle of separation of powers was adopted, which dispersed political power between different institutions and positions in order to maintain political balance and checks and balances of power. The Senate, the Consuls, and the Popular Assembly were the most important of these institutions. The Senate consisted of nobles and was responsible for setting policy and directing the affairs of the state. The consul is the supreme executive and has administrative and military command powers. A popular assembly is a gathering of all citizens with decision-making and electoral powers.
There was a clear social hierarchy in Roman society, with privileges and equal rights for the aristocratic class and the plebeian class, respectively. However, through protests and struggles, the common people gradually gained more political participation rights and eventually entered the government system.
The evolution of social class and political participation
At first, Roman society was divided into an aristocratic class and a plebeian class, with the aristocracy consisting of wealthy people from aristocratic families with political and economic privileges. The plebeian class consisted of a broad masses of free citizens, who were usually farmers, craftsmen and merchants, lacking political power and social status.
Gradually, however, the common people began to fight for political rights and equality of social status. They organized themselves and carried out a long struggle and protest. The main demand of the common people is to be able to have more power of representation and participation in government. Through continuous struggle, they gradually gained some rights and opportunities for political participation.
In the 4th century BC, the plebeian class achieved an important victory, gaining the right to be able to elect their own representatives into the system of government. These representatives, known as "leaders of the people", are able to protect the interests of the civilian population and have the right to veto laws and policies. This system strengthens the position of the civilian class in politics, enabling them to participate directly in decision-making and influence policy-making.
Over time, the power of the common people to participate in politics gradually expanded. Gradually, they gained the right to participate in the Senate, became politicians and high-ranking officials. Some politicians from the plebeian class, such as Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar, achieved great influence, and they became important figures in the Roman political scene through their political skills and broad popular support.
However, the expansion and transformation of the Roman Empire, the evolution of social classes and political participation also brought new challenges. The aristocracy gradually lost control of politics, while the new affluent class began to emerge in the political and economic spheres. These wealthy classes, which had accumulated enormous influence through wealth and commercial activity, formed a new opposition to the traditional aristocracy. This has led to a redistribution of political power and a change in political participation.
Coupled with the decline of the Roman Republic and the increase in internal and external pressures, political power was gradually concentrated in a few individuals. Some military commanders, such as Marius and Sla, seized political control through military support and force, and this military intervention led to instability and instability in the political system.
Eventually, the political system of the Roman Republic was overthrown and replaced by the establishment of the Roman Empire. Caesar became the first emperor of the Roman Empire, and the political system and institutions of the republic gradually disappeared.
The impact of internal and external wars on the Roman republic
Internal and external wars had a profound impact on the Roman Republic, and these wars faced the Roman Republic with major political, economic, and social challenges, culminating in the collapse of the Republic.
External wars were one of the first challenges facing the Roman Republic, which continued to expand its territory and engage in conflicts with other powerful states and empires. These wars not only consumed a lot of human and material resources, but also put great pressure on Roman society. The victory in the war allowed Rome to increase its territory and wealth, but it also led to the expansion of the wealthy class and the widening gap between the rich and the poor. At the same time, the war also led to the rise of military commanders and the increase in personal power, which had an impact on the political balance of the republic.
The civil war also had a huge impact on the Roman republic. Rivalries between political factions and power struggles led to frequent civil wars. The conflict between Marius and Sla, the struggle between Caesar and Pompey, and Crassus are all examples of internal wars in a republic.
These civil wars not only resulted in massive casualties and loss of wealth, but also undermined the stability and balance of government power. The seizure of political control by military commanders through the loyalty of the army and the use of force weakened the authority of the Senate and popular assemblies, further shaking the foundations of the republic.
The impact of these internal and external wars on the Roman republic was manifold. They exacerbate social and political tensions, leading to instability and corruption in government. The economic burden and social unrest of war have eroded citizen confidence and participation, making political participation and cooperation more difficult. Ultimately, these wars created opportunities for individuals such as Caesar to rise, leading to the end of the republic and the establishment of the Roman Empire.
Internal strife and the rise of political factions
Internal strife and the rise of political factions had a significant impact on the Roman republic, and throughout the history of the republic, different political factions competed for power, leading to government turmoil and concentration of power.
Some of the prominent political factions included the Elegance faction and the Democrats, with the Elegance faction consisting mainly of the aristocracy, who supported conservative policies and upheld aristocratic privileges. They tended to maintain the existing power structure and protect the interests of the nobility. The democrats, on the other hand, represented the interests of the plebeian class, and advocated the expansion of the rights and opportunities of the plebeians in order to balance the privileges of the aristocracy.
The rise of these political factions has led to fierce political confrontations and power struggles. The contradictions between the nobles and the commoners deepened, and they fought for control by various means. Politicians such as Marius, Slav, Pompey and Crassus became representatives of different political factions, using political and military force to compete for power. These struggles led to the instability of the government and the concentration of power, which undermined the balance and institutions of the republic.
As time went on, the conflict between the political factions became more and more serious, and the internal struggle turned into a civil war. Politicians use the military as an instrument of their own power, seizing political control by force. This further weakened the foundations of the republic, making individual power and military power the main factors influencing politics.
They undermine the stability and checks and balances of government, leading to corruption and fragility in politics. At the same time, these struggles have undermined citizen confidence and participation, making political participation and cooperation difficult. Ultimately, these internal struggles created the conditions for the rise of the individual and the end of the republic, paving the way for the establishment of the Roman Empire.
Political corruption and institutional failure
Political corruption was an important factor in the failure of the Roman Republic, the expansion of the republic and the accumulation of wealth, and corruption became widespread in the government. These include bribery, abuse of power, bureaucracy, and conflicts of interest. Aristocrats and politicians used their positions of power for personal gain rather than serving the common good. Bribery became a common means of obtaining political office, influencing policies and laws, and even interfering with the judicial process. The spread of bureaucracy has led to delays and inefficiencies in government decision-making.
First, it undermines the credibility and legitimacy of the government. Public frustration and distrust of the government have intensified, leading to instability and division in society. Second, corruption leads to the waste of resources and the unfair distribution of resources. Corruption and bribery allow national wealth to be plundered by individuals or a few, leading to a widening gap between the rich and the poor in society.
In addition, political corruption undermines the republic's checks and balances and the effectiveness of the system. Greedy politicians distort the balance and fairness of the system of government by manipulating elections, bribing politicians, and using the military. This led to the concentration of power and the prevalence of individualism, weakening the principles of citizen participation and democracy. Eventually, it led to the collapse of the republic and the establishment of the Roman Empire, where political corruption and the failure of the system interacted and exacerbated each other, which together led to the collapse of the republic.
In the history of the Roman Republic, we have witnessed the alternation of its prosperity and crisis. During the heyday of the republic, Rome became a powerful city-state through hard work and successful expansion, and established a complex political system and institutions. The separation of powers, the parliamentary system, and the evolution of social participation provided the basis for the successful development of the Roman Republic.
Although the Roman republic eventually went into decline, it made important achievements in political organization and institution-building. It laid the foundation for the development of the Western political system and had a profound impact on subsequent states and societies. The rise and crisis of the Roman republic taught us that the development of political institutions required constant vigilance and reform in order to adapt to social changes and to cope with emerging challenges.
As we examine the history of the Roman Republic, we can draw wisdom from it to reflect on and improve our own political system. By understanding the interplay between prosperity and crisis, we can shape a more stable, just, and sustainable political order.
Second, talk about the Senate in detail
1. The Senate, the center of the political game in the ancient Roman Republic
During the ancient Roman Republic, the Senate gradually developed from the clan representative house appointed by the king during the royal period to the nobility-plebeian senate, and at the end of the Republic, it was gradually elevated by Octavian and gave birth to the "Führer", and then declined, but throughout the history of the Roman Republic, the Senate has always been the center of political games.
During the reign of the king, the senate was an advisory body to the king, but after the overthrow of the king, the early senators, as representatives of the clan, gained a prominent position and actual power, and in addition to dismissal, they could hold office for life and have quasi-power and regency. The quasi-legislative power is the legislative power to approve the resolutions of the popular assembly, which is similar in nature to the modern sense; The regency was in the absence of 2 consuls and no successor was appointed. The aristocratic senators took turns ruling until new elections were held, which was similar in nature to the executive power in the modern sense. Thus, the Roman Senate was not part of the separation of checks and balances since the time of the Republic, quite the opposite. It had a tendency to centralize power, and through subsequent development, it absorbed powerful people from all walks of life in Rome, gradually usurped the legislative power of Rome, and intervened and indirectly controlled the executive and judicial powers.
The Holtensey Law established a new system of senator selection, in which the appointment of senators was transferred to tribunes, and theoretically the nobles and commoners had equal access to the senate, and this senator was the "elected senator", which evolved with the development of the republic. The powers of the senators converged and gradually expanded, becoming the center of power in Rome. At the same time, the collective system of magistrates and early elections reduced the use of the regency system, and the focus of the senate shifted to expressing opinions on the submission of bills.
During a certain period of time in the ancient Roman Republic. The Senate is an advisory council of officials, and although it has considerable political authority, it does not have the power to initiate motions, and officials are not legally required to hear their opinions. Subsequently, the Boumbrili and Filoni Act provided for the validity of the plebeian assembly with the prior consent of the senators, forming the constitutional custom of consulting the senate. The Senate is not only binding on officials, but can also participate in legislative activities, gradually gaining the right to decide on constitutional issues, and establishing a mechanism for the review of unconstitutionality in the legislative process. Since the laws of a constitutional nature on which it is based were formed in the course of this process, the senate essentially usurped the legislative power and the judicial protection against infringement of the legislative power, which began to become central to Roman politics.
The Senate held the legislative power without supervision, and at the same time, the supreme leadership of military power and war was also in fact held by the Senate, including the authorization of command, the "extension of power", the right to approve the service and discharge of soldiers, and the dispatch of military commissioners. In addition, since the way in which senators are elected is largely based on the size of their official positions, most commanders subjectively compromise with the senate based on the need to become senators after retirement. If the commander does not obey the command of the senator, the commander becomes the senator after that. It was not possible to ensure that subsequent commanders would follow the orders of former commanders who had become members of the Senate.
In addition to legislative and military powers, the Senate also had extensive financial management powers. In matters of disposition of public property, magistrates were required to obtain authorization from the Senate. In the later period of the Roman Republic, in case of emergency, in the judicial sphere, the Senate had the power of approval to authorize judges not to be limited by the dictatorship of the "appeal" system. The Senate had the legislative power and the judicial protection against infringements, and the Senate was selected by officials, so no one in Roman politics dared to offend the authority of the Senate and valued and recognized the Senate's mandate. Although officials were elected by the people, their powers were largely limited by the Senate, which had the opportunity to become a reserve member of the Senate, which claimed to be accountable to the people before being elected but was accountable to the Senate after being elected, and the contradiction was evident in the land reform in Gracchus.
Gracchus represented the will of the people to reform, he protected the poor, opposed the rich, pleaded for the people's lives, he proposed a plan to dispossess the land of the rich and distribute it to the poor, which naturally made him many enemies, but Octavian, who was also the tribune, bowed to the will of the Senate and vetoed the bill. Although Gracchus eventually deposed Octavian through a plebeian council and carried out reforms, Gracchus lost the support of the Senate and angered the Senate, and in order to maintain his own security or safeguard the achievements of reform, Gracchus tried to become a long-term tribune in violation of the law, and was called "a vain attempt to become a dictatorial king" by the Senate. This created a dilemma for the Roman polity, and the choice of Gracchus meant that Gracchus risked becoming a dictatorial king; The choice of the Senate meant that the Senate could take power against the opinion of the masses, and its so-called people's mandate became a dead letter. In fact, the Senate was composed of the heads of the executive and held the Roman legislative power and the judicial protection against infringement of legislation, and no body could supervise the Senate.
All in all, the Senate formed a dictatorship over Rome, which differed from the imperial system only by whether the dictator in power was composed of many or one. Therefore, the Roman Republic's move towards imperialism became a historical necessity, for example, the first Roman emperor Octavian called himself the head of state, that is, the chief citizen of the Senate.
2. Revealing Ancient Rome: The Power Game Between the Senate and Imperial Power
In the historical account of Cassionodorus, an interesting scientific phenomenon is mentioned - the "anecdote Holderi", named by the German scholar A. Holder. The aristocrat Cimarcos gave a unique "allegorical" speech in the ancient Senate, giving the Senate the power to select new members for itself.
During this period, the Senate's co-optation powers were significantly strengthened, and even the king had to obtain his consent to appoint new members. When the king is unwilling to give a candidate a position directly, he submits the candidate to the Senate for a vote.
In fact, the Senate accepted not only the sons of illustrators, but also talented lawyers and some Goths, which shows that Theodoric and his successors respected and tolerated the Senate beyond imagination.
However, these nominations have not always been smooth sailing. The king often appeared as a supplicant, apologizing to the Senate for the troubles it might cause. Impressively, the Senate had steadfastly rejected the young nobles recommended by Theodoric, rather than the Goths, who were members of the Viriclarimi family.
The correspondence preserved by Cassiodorus reveals this historical detail for us.
The newly elected senator has distinguished himself with a unique honor, with the rigorous formula of Cassiodoros. As always, this institution brings together Italy's most prominent and wealthy family elite, but there is still a subtle grip on authority.
The Gothic king, though he respected them, did not forget to emphasize that the senator's travel was subject to the highest approval, like an unsolved code, sealed in the history of the Variae.
The children of the nobility from Sicily and other places, due to Theodoric's suspicions, were also placed under strict supervision in Rome, with special senators in charge of their conduct.
The Goths joined forces with the city officials and formed a supervisory committee to settle in Rome, and the city was directly under their control. All directives related to national security must be enforced through the Senate.
Nonetheless, the Senate's status has not diminished, but has been enhanced by more responsibilities. As the symbolic masters of Rome, they guarded the city's ancient traditions, growing in influence as the heart of the empire continued.
When the Ostrogothic kings were stationed in Ravenna, the value and responsibility of Rome as the core of the former empire became even more prominent.
The Senate for Municipal Political Justifications works hand in hand with city administrators, in which the Municipal Police (as part of the Gothic Council) operate independently to maintain order. The Senate dominates cultural events such as spectacles and circus performances, but excessive enthusiasm can lead to chaos and even tragedy.
The field of education is also regulated by it, and the ancient capital of Rima controls the appointment and dismissal of teachers and financial supervision. It is also the responsibility of the Senate to deal with private law disputes and the maintenance of urban facilities (e.g., city walls, buildings, water systems).
In the face of emerging challenges, the Senate appointed an ad hoc official, Romanus, to handle public works, and sometimes the imperial power needed to step in to correct abuses, such as nationalization.
Theoretically, legislative power rests with the Senate, albeit historically controversial. They set school regulations and tax policy, while the Senate's endorsement of royal decrees gave them legal authority.
The discussion focused on whether the Ostrogothic kings actually had legislative power, or whether this power was vested in the Eastern Roman Emperor and extended to the whole of Italy.
Although some researchers have questioned the validity of Byzantine law in Italy by citing the dark descriptions in Cassiodorus's Variants, it has been shown that during the Ostrogothic period, and especially during the reign of Theodoric, many imperial decrees did extend to Italy, especially in terms of the administrative system.
Theodoric followed Anastasius' example in establishing the position of nobility, and the procedure for appointing nobles was changed by the laws of Justinian. However, these cases did not diminish the power of the Ostrogothic kings to legislate independently, and they enjoyed legislative freedom on an equal footing with the populace.
The Byzantine Emperor used a multifaceted strategy, such as practical punishments for various groups of people (e.g., businesses or individuals), tax-related regulations, and legislative directives issued through the Janissary governors, collectively known as "programs" that covered all areas of administration.
For example, Theodoric's edict was not directed at a single target, but broadly involved local officials, business groups, and Roman citizens. These laws are generally applied, rather than specific to individuals, and some even follow the naming tradition of Atalarricus's decrees.
At the end of each bill, you'll find strict rules dedicated to distribution regulations and penalties for non-compliance. Among them, the edict, as an authoritative document, although not a legislative innovation, interprets the law in detail, grants privileges, and embodies royal gifts.
Whether it was in the spirit of ancient Roman law or in response to the understanding of the local people, the king had the right to adapt to the needs of the times. As Theodoric's edict indicates, these changes were made in response to the changes that followed in life.
Although we use terms such as jussio and auctoritas to label these innovations, let's not forget that the legislative activity of the Roman aristocracy went beyond the traditional lex, and the approval of the Senate was an important sign of this transformation.
With strong support at the state level, Atalarricus brought his decree to the Senate and similarly treated the controversy over Simone's decree. Although the Senate is legislatively focused on local matters, it remains the supreme authority to hear cases of senators, whether in plenary or committee form.
Under the Ostrogoths, the judicial role of the Senate was further expanded, although this did not materialize as Atalarricus had anticipated. To delve into Gothic Roman society in the first half of the sixth century, we must first ask: Did the Roman aristocracy suffer substantial losses as a result of the Goths, and if so, to what extent, and what was their attitude towards them?
In the historical account of the Goths in Italy, it is usually mentioned that the Ostrogoths occupied a third of the land, but this is based on the precedent of the Otto Arthur Herullies, however this is not sufficient.
In fact, the Ostrogothic encroachment extended to all of Italy, and the example of the Herulians may be misunderstood. In addition, there is a lack of conclusive evidence for the claim that they occupy one-third of the land.
Procopius's literature probably exaggerates their impact and may be about a one-third share of the distribution of land products.
The Ostrogoths and Herruli gained new territories, while the Fisk domains were passed from Odoarthur to Theodoric. As the true owners of the land, the Goths fulfilled the tax burden, and any confiscation of one-third of the property rights would be a huge blow to the original owners.
However, historical accounts show that their reign in Italy proceeded smoothly and without traces of violence. Enoldius' observations show that the locals were barely aware of the changes.
The solution to this problem may be that the land was originally undeveloped, or privately owned but adjusted through peaceful means, or partially returned to State ownership. Curiously, according to Cassiodo's Variations, Theodoric skillfully allowed the inhabitants of Catalia to continue to fulfill their obligations in the form of a land tax, suggesting that the land policy of the time may have included some flexibility.
深入解析这些第三层政策，实质上是关于土地税的不同解读，Cassiodorus的词汇如illatiotertia和trinaillatio，需与tertiae明确区分。
This is a unique tax concept in which the king has one-third control over the income of the domain, which includes administrative maintenance costs. To avoid potential risks, the Catalia advocated for the privatization of land as an alternative to the regular tribal tax.
Theodoric adjusted his strategy to make land leases fairer for Trent residents, and the tax adjustments were designed to ensure residents' rights. A comparison of the deputatiotertiarum during the Gothic reign reveals the strategic choices for the implementation of the two tax systems.
3. The political system of ancient Rome - what was the "Senate" in ancient Rome?
In the previous article, we introduced three forms of popular political assembly in early ancient Rome. However, in order to fully understand the political system of ancient Rome, it is necessary to avoid another political system term that often appears with ancient Rome, the "Senate".
After Rome established a republic in 508 B.C., whether it was a monument or a proclamation, it would be signed by SPQR, which means "Senate and Roman people", and the members of the Roman Senate were not elected, and the term of office was lifelong, but not hereditary.
元老院是罗马共和国的真正灵魂和权威。 罗马人在书写他们的共和国时通常缩写为"SPQR"(拉丁文Senatus Populus que Romanus),意思是"元老院和罗马人民",元老院居于首位。
Sometimes the Senate is nicknamed the "House for the Elderly". But in the pre-Roman Empire, especially during the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate was the most formidable center of power in Rome. Without the support of the Senate, the so-called consuls were in most cases simply unable to control the situation in ancient Rome.
1) The emergence of the Senate and the election of members
During the reign of the king
The Roman Senate is said to have originated in the royal era of the 8th-6th centuries BC, and was first founded by Romulus, the builder of the Roman city, to assist in his rule. During the reign of the king, the members of the Senate consisted of "kings" selected from among the heads of various clans, and the Senate initially consisted of a hundred heads of families called Patres (patres), which later evolved into the term Patricians. The patriarch served for life. By the time of the third king, the number of senators had increased to two hundred.
Later, due to the arbitrariness of the last 'king' Tarquwin, he never consulted the Senate during his reign, and at the same time was brutal and arrogant and extremely harsh on the people. This caused discontent among the Senate and the populace, who united to expel the old king.
Republic period
At the dawn of the Roman Republic (around 500 BC), Lucius Junius Brutus (legendarily led the Roman populace to expel the old king) and was one of the first consuls. Increase the number of patriarchs to three hundred.
由于他们是被布鲁图斯新召入元老院，他们也被称为“新进元老”（Conscripti）。 于是元老院的成员由初时被称为“各位父老及各位新进元老”（ Patres et Conscripti），逐渐地变为“各位元老”（Patres Conscripti）。
In fact, it can be seen that the power and status of the Senate in Roman society increased greatly due to the important role played by the Senate in the process of expelling the old king.
As the political situation in Rome developed, the membership of the Senate changed again – that is, to absorb outgoing elected government officials into the Senate. During the royal reign, only the heads of the noble families (Patres Conscripti, "the parents of the list") could enter the Senate, and according to the Lex Ovinia (c. 312 BC), the members of the Senate were chosen from among the best of the former high officials (consuls, procurators, chancellors, etc.). By the time of Sulla (81BC), the status of the senator began to be linked to the official position, and the quaester (treasurer) automatically became the senator after the expiration of his term.
Of course, the link between official position and patriarchal status has also gone through a gradual process, and it is not Sula's invention. Early dictators, cavalry commanders, consuls, law officers, and octocratic builders may all become senators. With the heavy casualties during the Second Punic War, the composition of the former officials in the Senate also extended downward. The lex repetundarum of 123BC implies that all aediles and above are "or about to enter the Senate". By the late second century BCE, lex Atinia had made tribunus plebis automatically a member of the Senate. Some priesthood may also offer Senate tickets, although this is debatable. In addition, the identity of the elder is also divided into senior (senior) and junior (junior), senior elders have the right to speak, and junior can only attend. Therefore, even if a retired official can automatically enter the Senate later, if he wants to speak, he will have to wait until the ombudsman gives him senior status.
However, in general, the gap between classes was further broken during the Republican period, and the members of the Senate were initially composed of the aristocratic class, and the members of the Senate were given the opportunity to participate in both the aristocracy and the commoners, which meant that the commoners could also enter the Senate.
As commoners gained various high-ranking positions, the number of people entering the Senate increased rapidly, and the power of the nobility shrank day by day. At the same time, these high-ranking retired officials were politically experienced and socially prestigious, which raised the status of the Senate; Coupled with the fact that the Senate was smaller in size and more convenient than the Curia and Sendurian assemblies, the Senate held many important powers in the Roman state.
Some of the necessary conditions to become a senator
The senators of the Republic period did not have property claims on the surface, but generally at least from the knightly class. However, in fact the patriarch actually had a property claim due to the property requirements of the knightly class itself (the property requirement of the knightly class was one million asses (=HS 400,000)).
Family background is an important condition, and even if the privileges of the patricians become less and less in the future, the family background of the nobility will still be given priority in the selection of the senators. However, it is not completely absolute, the more later, people who are capable, knowledgeable and responsible, even non-nobles, have the opportunity to enter the Senate, of course, the review is extremely strict.
In addition to family background, character is also one of the factors in the assessment, or more like a factor of elimination. Newcomers with poor character will be "praeterire" (skipped), and those who are already veterans will be removed (movere). In the early days, "bad conduct" mainly referred to official character, including corruption, indiscriminate killing, unconstitutionality, violation of divination, and violation of the veto (veto) of colleagues. Later it also includes personal conduct, including crime, bankruptcy, alleged infamia, participation in gladiatorial fights, pimping, or demotion in the military.
Although the Senate is tenured, you may think that the members of the Senate are old and stubborn, but this is not something to worry about. At that time, the medical conditions did not make an old man an old man an old stubborn, and the door of the temple of Anus in Rome was always open, and the death of senators in battle seemed to be commonplace. ）。
2) The powers and duties of the Senate
The evolution of the Senate's powers and responsibilities
In the early days of the reign of the king, the Senate only appeared as an advisory body to the "king", it could not convene on its own, and it did not have the right to make proposals, and generally could only discuss the issues raised by the "king" and give opinions and decisions. So its main function is consulting.
As an advisory body, the Senate at this time had little power, but this did not mean that the Senate was just an ornament: the laws passed by the Council of Nobles had to be approved by the Senate; The king must consult the Senate on important matters (such as peace), and the king must also seek the advice of the Senate when exercising the death penalty. The legendary Seventh King Takwen was tyrannical and tyrannical, ignoring the laws of the land and executing people without the consent of the Senate, which was an important reason for his exile abroad.
Later, however, more and more important matters were gradually decided by the Senate. Of course, the decision of the Senate can only take effect by a vote of a public assembly or a public assembly. At the same time, the Senate should assist the consuls to tide over difficulties and solve problems, and it can also play a role in supervising and restraining the consuls and tribunes.
During the Republic, the Senate had more power, and basically the discussion and decision of national policy were carried out in the Senate. "The integration of the individual authority of each patriarch forms the power of a group." The Senate has become the controller of the real power of the state, and it is the main deliberative and decision-making body of the state, and its power is extremely great. In Monsen's History of Rome it is written that "every new draft law must be discussed in the Senate, and a proposal is seldom dared to be submitted to the people by the prefect without consulting the Senate".
The specific powers and duties of the Senate in its heyday
I.. Right of Supervision:
The Senate has the power to supervise and direct the work of the Chief Executive, appoint representatives to assist the Chief Executive in his work, and when encountering major problems, the Chief Executive will generally obey the will of the Senate and implement the resolutions of the Senate; It will also affect the appointment and dismissal of other officials by the consuls; and had the right of supervision over all Roman citizens.
II.. Legislative and Judicial Power:
In terms of legislation, the bills adopted by the Senduria Assembly must be approved by the Senate in order to have the force of law. Later, the Senate also gradually acquired the power to determine the legality of laws and declared null and void laws that had not been voted on. On judicial matters, the Senate controls the members of the adjudication committee, who can rule on contradictions between the province and the citizens.
III.. Military Appointment and Dismissal:
The Senate during the Republic had broad powers in military matters. First, the Senate could direct military operations and appoint and dismiss military and political officials; The command of the generals on the battlefield was influenced by the Senate to varying degrees, and the Senate could also conscript troops and participate in the war. The second factor was the distribution of the spoils after the war, whether triumph was allowed, and so on.
IV. Powers of the Treasury to manage the treasury:
The consuls were subject to the senate in the administration of public property. The Senate was responsible for preparing the budget, determining the tax rate, managing the state treasury, managing the state treasury, dividing the provincial tributes, and controlling the expenditure of public utilities. The financial power of the government is actually in the hands of the central authorities.
V. Authority over the provinces:
In addition, the Senate Senate has important powers in state diplomacy, religion, etc. The Senate is responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy, and the Senate has the power to receive diplomatic envoys. Another important power of the Senate was the direct appointment of autocratic officials (dictactors) to declare a state of emergency in the event of a crisis in the country. This shows that the Senate in the republican period has broken through the original framework of advisory bodies and has become the de facto leader of the republic.
VI. The role of foreign wars and diplomacy
Since the Senate had the function of "formulating foreign policy and sending envoys to sign diplomatic contracts", whether its foreign policy was correct or not was directly related to the life and death of the Roman city-state. It is no exaggeration to say that the Senate played a role that cannot be ignored in the series of drastic policies and instruments of the early republic. There is no more effective alliance than foreign policy.
(Some of the results of the diplomacy of the Senate in the early years of the Republic:
a. In 493 BC, the Latin Confederation was formed and the Treaty of Cassius was concluded, which helped Rome defend and consolidate its independence, freed Rome from its isolation, and laid the foundation for the Roman conquest of Italy;
b. In the face of the invasion of the Gauls, the Senate made the necessary compromise to drive the Gauls away with a thousand pounds of gold, retaining the main fighting force and laying the foundations for the revival of Rome;
c. The Senate separated the city-states of the Latin Confederation by granting citizenship to the different Leagues. In the history of the Roman Republic, this policy of the Senate was of great historical significance and became a consistent practice in the Senate's foreign relations;
d. The Senate advocated active outward expansion, which was well reflected in its attitude towards Carthage. ）
The Senate of ancient Rome was originally a remnant of the primitive democracy of the ancient tribes, but it became the most important political structure throughout the history of the ancient Roman state, profoundly influencing a series of major historical events from the end of the royal government to the emergence of the Roman Empire. For most of the Roman state, especially during the Republic, the decisions made by a few hundred senators in the chamber of the Senate affected the future and destiny of every individual in Roman society.
Although the members of the Senate would also greedily plunder the land and property of the conquered, they would also ignore legitimate demands in order to maintain their privileged position. They are not saints, they make mistakes, they waver, and they hesitate. On the whole, however, the political wisdom displayed by the Roman Senate was indeed unprecedented, unparalleled in the world at the time. Most of the members of the Senate came from families of politicians, and they had heard and witnessed them since childhood, and accumulated rich experience in the military, judicial, and administrative affairs. When peace is going well, it is inevitable that they will show the shortcomings of arrogance and greed, but when they encounter difficulties and national crises, they often win the final victory because of their perseverance, patience and extraordinary dedication.
"Rome has no king, but every one of the hundreds of members of the Senate is a king of Rome", the enemies of Rome said of the Roman Senate with fear.
4. The Senate is the defender of public affairs" - On the rise and fall of the Senate of the ancient Roman Empire
Throughout history and the present, in addition to the need for leaders of different periods for the existence of a country or political power, it is also indispensable to set up a branch of the organization for the prosperity of the country and the stability of the political power. Today we are going to talk about the Senate of ancient Rome. The existence of ancient Rome is a strong stroke in the history of the West, and at the same time, the ancient Roman civilization has also had a great influence on later generations. As one of the government institutions of ancient Rome, what kind of existence did the Senate have with the rise and fall of the ancient Roman Empire? Let's find out.
According to legend, the Senate was first established by the founders of Roman mythology, and it appeared in the form of a meeting of clan elders, and later the nobility in ancient Roman history also evolved from the clan leaders in the Senate.
Historical evolution of the Senate
In the royal era, the Senate, as an advisory body to the king, did not have great power on the surface, but major national affairs had to be approved by the Senate first, and the execution of criminals had to obtain their consent. In ancient Rome, there was no such thing as retirement, and the senators could serve for life. Legend has it that the seventh king of ancient Rome was tyrannical and domineering, and regarded the laws of the country as child's play. On one occasion, he sentenced a criminal to death without consulting the Senate, which angered the senator and dispopularized him, and he was exiled abroad.
During the Roman Republic, the Senate was expanded from 100 to 300 members. In addition to the original clan leaders, there are also selected outstanding justices, consuls, etc. The newly added senators had great prestige in society, thus raising the status of the Senate in the state. In 123 BC, the Senate was divided into two classes, the early nobles were called knights, and the new high-ranking officials were called the knightly economic class. The knightly economic class generally had high political power and wealth, and they were free to engage in commercial trade, and their descendants still enjoyed the right to be included in the economic class.
Conservative parties came to prominence in the late Roman Republic, and society became increasingly tense due to the form of partisan struggle. During Caesar's reign, the Senate was increased to 900 members, and a new "membership" was introduced. Although the former patriarchs still occupy a place in the country's politics, they are far less important than before. The power of the Senate was also much less than before.
When Octavian took office, he set the membership of the Senate at 600. During this period, although it was claimed that the Senate and "Augustus" were in charge of state affairs, in fact Octavian increased his influence in the Senate. At this time, the Senate was deprived of the right to vote, and Octavian also had the right to veto the decisions of the Senate. However, during this period, the Senate gradually gained formal legislative power. In the later period of the Roman Empire, the rule of absolute monarchy was implemented, and the Senate was no longer a decision-making body involved in national political affairs, but was reduced to a parliamentary organization.
During the Byzantine period, Tantin I established an independent senate, but it always existed as an ornament and had no real power.
The operating system of the Senate
1) Class system
The chairmen of the Senate rotate on a monthly basis. The council is headed by the First Patriarch, and the high-ranking consul is usually the magistrate, who also plays the role of chairman. When the consul was absent, the First Patriarch took over the job. The first senator to speak in the council was also the first to speak, and the order of speech was also strictly regulated by law, and the commoners who had the right to speak must speak after the nobles of equal status spoke.
2) Debate habits
The Senate was free from debate, and trivial matters of inconsequential matter could be voted on by a show of hands, but major matters concerning national politics were decided by divisions, such as being divided into ten districts, each headed by a nobleman, and the affairs were carried out by a particular district.
3) Dress style
The elders were also divided into different ranks, and the styles of clothing of the elders of different ranks were also different. The early patriarchs wore rings made of iron, which were later changed to gold rings. They wore knee-length tunics with a wide purple stripe on the right shoulder, and uniform maroon leather boots on their feet. The senators who had chairs in the meeting wore white robes trimmed with purple and red trims, while the senators who did not have the right to vote could only wear white robes without any decoration.
Powers of the Senate
1) The right to make suggestions
During the Roman Republic, the Senate did not yet have legislative power, and the Senate could only serve as a recommendation for legal proceedings. Later, through the rise of the Council of Hundred and the Council of the Plebeians, the legal provisions were in fact decided by the Council, and the power of the Senate in Roman politics was not to be underestimated.
2) Executive power
During the Republic, the Senate evolved into an administrative facility that managed the diplomacy and finances of ancient Rome. The senators of the Senate were also responsible for receiving emissaries sent by other city-states, directing officials to administer the common lands, and the command of the army and how to distribute the public funds were also determined by the Senate.
3) Legislative power
The Senate itself does not possess the right to legislate, and there has been controversy in academic circles about how long the Senate has held legislative power. What is certain is that after the royal era, in order to seize the legislative power, the emperor initially transferred the power of legislation to the senate, which enjoyed the right to directly promulgate laws. However, at this time, the Senate was basically the people chosen by the emperor, so they all existed only as vassals of the emperor, and most of the Senate's resolutions were authorized by the emperor. It was not until the beginning of the 3rd century that the emperor acquired formal legislative powers, and the Senate ceased to be legislative.
4) The right to appoint and dismiss
The Senate also has the power to serve as executive or to nominate dictators. In the later period of the Roman Republic, in order to defend the Republic, this resolution of the Senate played a huge role.
5) Suffrage
During Octavian's reign, the "Augustus" were ostensibly elected by the Senate, but in reality the Senate's power was only a formality. Although the senior officials were said to be elected by the Senate, they were actually promoted by the Führer. In the later period, the Senate directly lost the right to vote.
The power of the Senate expanded
In the early days of the Roman Republic, the Senate existed only as an advisory council for officials, and although it had a certain authority, it had no substantive rights, and there was no legal requirement for officials to listen to the opinions of the Senate. Later, the Boumbrili and Fioni Law was promulgated, which provided for the legal force of the plebeians' assemblies with the consent of the senators, and thus began to form a constitutional system within the republic in which the senators were consulted. The Senate not only restrained the behavior of officials, but also participated in legislation, gradually gaining the power to make decisions on relevant legal issues. Moreover, the Senate established a review mechanism in the legislative process, further controlled the country's politics, and gradually developed into a core organ of the government.
After obtaining legislative power, the Senate also held the supreme military leadership, and the review of soldiers' service and retirement was entrusted to the Senate. If the commander does not obey the command of the Senate, it will lead to political instability in the country, which ordinary commanders would not dare to do. Judging by the different choices of Caesar and Octavian, the commanders were all thinking about how to gain control of the Senate, rather than removing it from state institutions. This shows the importance of the Senate to the ancient Roman Republic and the power it held at that time.
In addition, the Senate also held the financial management power in many parts of the country. The magistrate had to be authorized by the Senate to dispose of public property. Judicially, the Senate could also authorize judges not to accept the "appeal" system. In ancient Rome at that time, no one dared to question the authority of the Senate, and the people also valued the Senate's resolutions very much.
Officials in ancient Rome were elected by the people, but their rights were largely restricted by the Senate. Moreover, officials can also be used as candidates for members of the Senate, so officials claim to be responsible to the people at the beginning of their selection, but in fact serve the Senate when they become officials, which also increases people's yearning for the rights of the Senate, and the development of the Senate reaches its heyday.
At the behest of the Senate, many magistrates, plebeian tribunes and consuls Q Lucretius, and the leaders of the state came to Capania to meet me. This honour has so far been enjoyed by no one other than me.
The weakening of the Senate
And by the end of the Roman Republic, the Senate also brought a series of contradictions to society. As a result of the power attraction of the Senate, it began to evolve into a political arena for power and profit, and the rulers tried to change the situation, but the senators maintained the outdated system and vetoed any progressive reforms.
Later, the Roman Republic was overthrown, the Roman Empire was established, and the power of the Senate began to disperse. After Caesar's death, Octavian was in power, and he knew that the Senate assassinated Caesar because of dictatorship, so he secretly planted his own eyeliner in the Senate, and later formed the Senate system, and the power of the Senate was basically hollowed out, leaving only an empty shell to assist the emperor.
On the other hand, entering a new historical period, the members of the Senate were mixed, and internal contradictions were numerous, which also affected its development. The knightly bureaucracy under the Führer system went against the existence of republican officials and gradually replaced republican officials. As a result, the Senate's right to vote and supervise gradually fell short. The Senate, which had been reformed by several regimes in Rome, was abolished.
The Senate was a government institution used in the reform of the ancient Roman regime, and it was also the pillar of the right of the aristocratic ruling class to survive. The Senate accompanied the rise and fall of ancient Rome and played a pivotal role in the history of the development of ancient Rome.
3. The Founding and Evolution of the Ancient Roman Republican System
a) Establishment of the Roman Republic
The legendary Romulus founded the city of Rome, and thereafter, during the royal era (753-509 BC), seven kings ruled Rome, known as the "Age of Monarchy", in the era of Romulus, Romulus appointed 100 of the most prominent people as councilors, called their individual people "nobles", and called their groups "senators". The Senate began as an advisory body, and later became the supreme authority in Rome, managing finances, diplomacy, military affairs, etc., with great power. The other organ of power was the Council of Curia (i.e., the Assembly of Citizens, also known as the Assembly of the Citizens, hereinafter referred to as the District Assembly), which was based on the family and clan, based on blood, and was the only organ of power before the Reformation of Servius (see later), which is said to have originated during the time of the first Roman king, Romulus. The assembly was convened by the king (Rex) and was limited to adult males, divided into three tribes (i.e., the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres), each of which had ten curias, so a total of 30 curia were in session, but when the resolution was passed, each of the 30 curia had one vote. For a long time, the Assembly of Curia was the sole organ of power in Rome. During the royal period, the Council of Curia had the following powers: to carry out ceremonies of personal separation from the clan, to adopt by the self-authorized (i.e., to belong to the father of one family), to notarize a will, to perform religious ceremonies of the holy king (rex sacrorum) and high priests, to confirm the renunciation of family religious ceremonies (i.e., to declare dissociation from the family), to confirm the appointment of the king, to pass laws (however, if the assembly rejects these laws does not prevent their promulgation) and to hear cases (i.e., to appeal to the people), and sometimes to declare the right of war.
Roman Senate
The reform of the sixth Roman king, Servius (r. 578-534 BC), had a profound impact on Rome, and Servius equalized the military obligations and powers of the so-called guest people [foreigners who remained in Rome according to the law of the guests] and citizens, but this reform did not prevent the end of the Roman monarchy, so it is foreseeable that in the Roman state, especially the transformation of the republican system, the contradiction between the domestic crisis and the change of the political system first caused the contradiction between the domestic crisis and the change of the political system, and the contradiction among the citizens to limit the power of the officials. In addition, Servius Tullius created the Senturia Conference. Modeled after the Greeks and Etruscans (inhabitants of central Italy, who had long been enemies of Rome), Servius conducted a census of the property of the free inhabitants of Rome, dividing them into five classes according to their wealth. Each rank provided an unequal number of "centurias" (also translated as "hundreds" or "hundreds") (as a military force for Rome. Before the first rank, there were also several knightly hundreds, made up of noble children. The first and second ranks are hoplites, the third and fourth ranks are light infantry, and the fifth ranks are slingers and archers. The proletarian dragon roared to be excluded. Citizen soldiers must be armed, and their equipment varies according to the class of property. Senturia can be said to be the prototype of the legion system. The Senturia Conference was made up of Senturia. Also known as the "100-Force" or "100-Regiment" Assembly. Initially military in nature, it later replaced the original Council of Curia with powers to declare war, make peace, elect high-ranking officials, make laws, and adjudicate trials. Because it votes on a Senturian basis, it is effectively controlled by wealthy citizens of the 1st Estate, who own more than half of the number of Senturia. The Assembly of Senturia later formed the basis of the Roman republican system with the famous Roman Senate and consuls.
The earliest achievement of the oldest opposition in Rome was the abolition of the tenure of the head of state, that is, the abolition of the king [BC 509, the republicans led by Brutus expelled the last king, Tarquin the Younger]. If we follow the Roman historian Monsen, we can conclude a pattern: in general, all the rulers of Italian civil societies (see below for the concept of civil societies) later changed from lifelong to annual terms, but the means of achieving this change of political system were different: 1. After the unexpected death of a lifelong monarch, the people decided not to choose one, as in the case of the Senate Regency after the death of Romulus [in the 8th century BC, the Senate was regent for decades]; 2. The automatic abdication of a monarch and the eventual evolution of custom or part of the political system, as is said to have been intended by Servius Tullius; 3. The king is tyrannical or mediocre, and the people rebel and expel him. Obviously, Rome belongs to the third category.
Servius Tullius
This was how the reign of Rome ended, and the last king of Rome was Tarquin the Younger (r. 539-509 BC), son-in-law of Servius [Lucius Tarquin Supeb, ?] -BC496] was the son-in-law of Servius, the son of the fifth king, Tarquin the Elder, and a notorious tyrant. He and his son did not understand politics, oppressed the people, and did all kinds of evil. His son, who was also a playboy and a womanizer, raped the aristocratic woman Rucres, who was so humiliated that he committed suicide. Lucres's husband, Lucius Tuckerwin Coratin, and her brother, Lucius Junius. Brutus was furious and called on the people (Rucres belonged to the Brutus clan) to expel the Tarquin family from Rome. Lucius Tarquin Colatin and Lucius Junius Brutus were then elected consuls. This was the end of the Roman monarchy.
The "arrogant" of Rome were expelled by an angry people. There were several reasons for this: 1) the king did not obey the law, 2) the king deprived others of their property without trial, and 3) he demanded additional military and labor service beyond the provisions of the law, and the people's anger stemmed entirely from these points, so they swore that no more kings would be allowed. But the so-called "sacrificial king" remained, a man of the highest rank but the least power in the Roman bureaucracy, and the people made such a king only because of the religious significance, that is, the messenger of God on earth, but nothing more. All members of the royal family were expelled from Rome, and the Tarquins retreated to Kerele [an important city in southern Etruscan], probably their homeland. The Roman people abolished a ruler for life and set up two consuls who served an annual term to lead the Roman community.
ii) The struggle of the Roman Republic
Despite the establishment of the Republic, the struggle within the Republic was still fierce, and in the early years of the Roman Republic, in a series of struggles between the different classes, they showed themselves different from other revolutions, and since the beginning of Rome as a state, the power to control everything was given to the civil community [one of the earliest Roman political units] representing the old citizens [distinguished from the new type of citizens, which later referred to the clan aristocracy], the so-called civil community, which was the Latins (referring to the ancient peoples who settled in the Latin Plains in the west-central Apennine Peninsula, including Rome and other peoples), the Latin communities in Italy had a loose Latin League, led by the Alba Society, which was the sacred ancient capital of the Latin League. The Roman Civil Society was a branch of the Latin Confederation, but unlike other Latin civil societies, it was a single primitive civil society, but was formed by contract of three primitive civil societies.
Speaking of the reason for the merger of the three civil societies in Rome, it is roughly such a process: the three civil societies adjacent to the Roman region are located on the northern front line of the Latin League, and have been invaded by foreign tribes for a long time, forming a relationship of mutual help. In some books, the civil society is also called the political district, which can be understood as the original three political districts of Rome, and after the reform of Servius, a fourth was added. It is recorded that each ministry (political district) consisted of 10 clans (clan districts); Clans consist of a number of patriarchal extended families, each with a large number of people, presumably 50-100 people per family.
Each Latin community was characterized by a regional settlement, with the same customs, language, and rules, and shared common facilities, such as walls, squares, warehouses, altars, etc., and was roughly the same as the polis. It has the power to decide appeals in criminal cases, the power to adjudicate civil cases and the power to appoint State officials
The Roman civil system of government was somewhat similar to the democracy of the Greek city-states, but it was not exactly copied. Because Rome was still fundamentally an agricultural country and a land country, rather than a commercial country and a maritime country, it did not adopt direct democracy with the participation of the whole people like the Greek city-states at the beginning, but realized representative politics through clans and political districts, and its social unit still had family and clan elements, unlike the Greek colonial city-states that would break the boundaries of family and clan, which can be said to be the fundamental difference between Roman democracy and Greek democracy. We can think of the civil community as the basis of the Roman republican system. The civil society was also the basis of the various organs of power in Rome
In all matters that are handled by the community, the community must be united. In order to make more efficient use of power, the civil society gave power to individual individuals who served for life, so dictatorship and repression were inevitable, and as a result, there were inevitably efforts to weaken this power. In the long years from the beginning of the Republic to the Gracchus brothers, what the Roman revolutionaries and progressives wanted was not to limit the power of the state, but to limit the power of the bureaucracy. At this time, the Roman Republic was engaged in three kinds of struggles at the same time:
1. The struggle for power within the citizens, such as the agrarian reform of Cassius in the early Republic [during the third consulship of Cassius in 486 BC], was fierce in the early Republic, when the land struggle between the nobility and the plebeians was fierce. Cassius, who was the consul at the time, proposed the Lex Cassius Agraria (Land Act), hoping to give some of the land seized by the nobles to the Latins and the other to the commoners. The nobles panicked at this proposal, as Cassius' decision not only threatened their property, but they believed that Cassius must have tried to curry favor with the commoners. Another consul with whom he was in power vehemently objected to this, declaring that the generous popular gift was impure and that Cassius was paving the way for his own royal power. The commoners believed this statement, rejected Cassius' proposal, and executed Cassius for treason. The subsequent Lex Licinia Sextia, adopted in 367 BCE, stipulated that no one could occupy more than 500 yugs (units of area), but no one complied with them. The wealthy still occupy the land by paying rent every year.
2. The movement of non-citizens demanding political equality, including commoners, Latins, Italians, and freed slaves [freed slaves who were legally allowed to be freed], and some of them were already called citizens, all of whom lacked political equality and demanded this equality, and as Rome became stronger, Rome gradually became the dominant player in the Latin Confederation, and the other members were in a dependent position. In the 4th century BC, dissatisfied Roman allies began a struggle against Roman tyranny and demanded freedom from Roman control. From 340 BC to 338 BC, there was a war of the League (or Latin Confederation). The allies formed a new alliance against Rome. In 338 BC, the Romans defeated the new allies, and the Latin Plain was completely conquered by the Romans, ending the Latin League. Rome made these conquered regions self-governing, fought alongside Rome in wartime, and became the "Latin Confederate Army", which was followed by Rome after conquering many Italian regions.
3. The struggle between the rich and the poor, which is not only more prevalent, but also more intense, such as the Movement of the Commoners to Retreat from the Holy Mountain [BC 494, in which the common people are dissatisfied with debt and labor and withdraw from the city of Rome and refuse to serve in the military]. In the early days, although Rome established a republic, the privileges were all held by the aristocracy, and the commoners basically had little right to speak. In 494 BC, the unbearable commoners set off the "Evacuation of the Holy Mountain" and moved out of the city of Rome to the nobles themselves. The aristocracy was forced to compromise. The post of tribune was established. The tribune was elected from the civilian council, initially 2 and later increased to 10. The provocates are inviolable and enjoy a special right -- the right of veto. The tribunes were so powerful that they could veto the decisions of the Roman Senate. With the exception of the dictator, the decision of any other senior governor has the right to veto any decision that is contrary to the interests of the common people. The so-called "Civilian Assembly" was also set up, and at first the resolution was only for the civilian population, so it was only valid for the civilian population, and then the power was gradually expanded. In 450 B.C., the famous "Twelve Bronze Tables" was formulated. These contradictions determine not only the history of Rome itself, but also the history of the Italian civil community. The struggles among the privileged citizens, the wars between the excluded and the outcast, the social contradictions between the propertied and the proletarians, often lead to alliances that cannot be united, but which are very different in nature and fundamentally.
3) Kings and consuls
What, then, is the difference between a king and an archon? Although the royal government disappeared, neither did the Roman kingship, which changed from a lifetime king to two time-limited "temporary kings", i.e., consuls, who called themselves judges (iudices), generals (praetores), and conules (colleagues). The highest power represented by the royal power, that is, the supreme power given by the civil society, is not transferred to the two supreme administrators at the same time, but each consul has the highest power equivalent to the royal power. This supreme power is given to two people at the same time, then the emergence of a division of labor is inevitable, but this division of labor is not the coercive effect of legal constraints, what one consul is doing and the other consul can interfere at will, the supreme power and the supreme power, one consul gives orders, the other prohibits, this separation of powers brings about the prevention of dictatorship like the royal power, and the orders of the two consuls can cancel each other out. This is the biggest difference between the consul and the king, so that the personal oppression of the dictatorship of Tarquin the Younger will no longer be present. And there is a big difference between the consul and the king: timeliness; Consuls cannot hold office for life, and when their term of office ends, he becomes like an ordinary citizen. In the Roman monarchy, although the Roman king was governed by the law, the supreme judge could no longer receive complaints from him, and there was no court specifically set up to try the king, but the consul committed a public law crime such as homicide [a type of Roman law, similar to the criminal offense of today] during his term of office, but during his term of office he could rely on his position to avoid trial, but once his consul's term was over, then he was no different from an ordinary citizen and could be criminally prosecuted.
Up to now, in criminal proceedings, when fines and penalties were involved, not only was it the power of the king to investigate and adjudicate the case, but it was also within the power of the king of Rome to decide whether the defendant could appeal. At this time [245 A.D.], the Valeri Law stipulated that if the criminal penalty was not imposed in accordance with military law, the consul had to agree to the defendant's appeal, and the Valeri Law was later extended to heavy property fines. The former consul's bodyguard, armed with a fascist [Latin for "axe", symbolizes war and generals], represented the criminal jurisdiction of the consuls, and now as a symbol, the consuls appear as judges and not as generals, and if the consuls do not allow the sinners to appeal, then the law can only impose notoriety, and the notorious citizen can only be a witness, so that the restrictions imposed by those who hold the supreme power after the revolution are strictly only of factual and moral value, therefore, If the consul does not exceed the authority of the original king, then he may have made a mistake, but it is not a crime.
In civil trials, the Roman kings were deprived of their power of judgment by the consuls, who could not interfere with the power of private appeals. In the past, the Roman king could appoint a magistrate or other official office at will, but this power of the consul was weakened, and when the supreme prefect, the consul, left Rome, he had to appoint a judge to judge in his place for the normal administration of the Roman city, but the status of his colleagues was not extended to agents, that is, as long as one of the consuls remained in Rome, then no judge or magistrate could be appointed. During the consul's stay in the city of Rome, he could exercise the power of appointment only within the prescribed limits, and in the absence of such provisions, the consul's power of appointment ceased to exist.
Previously, the power of sacrifice was in the hands of the king, but after the reform of Numa [the second king of the Roman monarchy], the king could even preside over the sacrificial assembly. Since the republic, this power has not been vested in the consuls, but has been filled by the male priesthood if there is a vacancy. But the Vestal Virgin [Roman priestly office, which had to remain chaste for life, and was dedicated to Vesta, the god of the hearth] and individual priests were in the hands of the priestly body. The patriarchal patriarchal authority of the priesthood was ceded to the priesthood, and in order to better deal with it, the priesthood elected a head named Pontifex maximus. In this way, religious power was separated from politics in general, and the priesthood was independent, but this also indirectly led to the fact that the secular power of the religious office in Rome was not large, and this separation of power can of course also be seen as a restriction on the power of the supreme administrator. Now that the king has been torn from his throne by the old and new citizens, and the prerogatives of the former king have been separated, the consul has no priesthood or the privileges of the former king, and all he can express is that he is distinguished from the common citizen by a purple trim around the edge of his clothes [in this case, toga], and is not allowed to ride in the city, but only walks with the ordinary citizen.
But this restriction of power on the consuls was not imposed on another special office, which was separate from the consuls and was a new supreme officer next to the two consuls, the "magister populi" (army leader), also known as the "dictator". The election of a dictator was not attended by a commoner in the ordinary sense of the word, who was elected purely by an archon, and which could not be hindered by his fellow consuls and the Roman government. The dictator's sentence is not subject to appeal, and all officials are subject to his jurisdiction as soon as he is appointed, unless he allows it. But the dictator still has two restrictions: 1. He is a colleague of the two consuls, and his term of office cannot exceed the legal term of the consuls. 2. The maximum length of his term of office is six months. When a dictator takes office, he must choose a "magister equitum" (cavalry commander) who is under the orders of the army commander and works with him, just as the consuls and magistrates do. According to the purpose of this system, it is likely that the dictatorship system was established at about the same time as the consul system, or even originated at the same time. In peacetime, the consuls exercised their powers separately, ensuring that there would be no dictators. In times of war, elect a co-leader dictator to avoid the inefficiencies of the same supreme power depleting each other, and avoid the harm of separation of powers.
4) The civil society and the consuls in the republican era
As mentioned above, the civil society was the foundation of Roman politics. The sovereignty of Rome was vested in the civil community. After the end of the royal era, the civil society gained the most important and greatest power, that is, to decide the leader of the civil society, to decide the life and death of the citizens, but in fact, the civil society could not do this, because the power fell into the hands of the aristocracy. The power of the people lies in the common people, and among the common people there are already many wealthy or famous people, who, although they share the burden of the public, are excluded from the citizens' assembly, which was tolerated in the royal era, as long as the citizens' assembly is interfered with in the normal operation of the state apparatus, as long as the king's authority causes the guests and the commoners to bow down together, so that the equality of the law is applied throughout the country, but the revolution happened, the royal era ended, and the civil society was given the power to regularly judge and elect consuls, As a result, the consul in the current position of the king was changed from the master of the civil society to his regular trustee. In the early years of the Roman Republic, citizens and guests were in the same boat, and the contradictions were temporarily put aside. In this period, the enlargement of the civil community was inevitable, and in the broadest way of this accomplishment, the whole commoner, that is, all the non-citizens, was incorporated into the civic class. A non-citizen is a foreigner who is neither a slave nor a foreigner residing in Rome under guest law.
In the republican era, conflicts between the highest officials of the civil society and the civil society itself were avoided, and the following arrangements were made for criminal proceedings: the division of the highest office of the civil society was always necessary to be carried out by the agent of the supreme prefect (i.e., the consul). Belonging to this category were two judges, two magistrates and two magistrates who specialized in the trial of riots and treason, both of whom were assistants appointed by the consuls themselves, and who of course abdicated when the consul's term of office expired. The position of this person, like that of the consul, is also established according to the principles of annuality, associates, and permanence. This does not refer to the low-ranking Roman officials per se, who were not appointed by the civil society, but were designed to divide the powers of the consuls more and to conduct government affairs more efficiently, and these assistants would continue to diverge in the years that followed, eventually becoming the diverse officials of the Roman bureaucracy.
In this spirit, the power of the Supreme Administrator to adjudicate civil proceedings was stripped away, and the power of the Roman king to appoint an agent to hear rare cases became the competence of the consuls, and similarly, the power to administer the treasury and the state archives also belonged to the consuls, but there were special assistants in this regard. While assistants such as magistrates would obey the archons' orders when adjudicating cases, the consuls would not be able to review the case without their foreknowledge and involvement. This double constraint on the power of delegation of the consul exists in the management of the city, and as the chief executive, the consul has the power to delegate all or some of the matters under his jurisdiction to others (i.e., agents). Of course, in purely civil affairs, agents must not interfere.
However, the king absolutely had the power to appoint his heir, and the civil society did not take him back from the new head of the civil society, but he was limited to those appointed to him by the civil society. By restricting the power of recommendation, the appointment of ordinary administrative officials seems to be in the hands of the civil society, but in fact there is still a big difference between the right to recommend and the power to formally nominate them. At the election podium, the consul was not just a presiding officer, he actually had the same privileges as the former king, he could disregard the votes cast by the senate and the citizens' assembly and remove certain electors from the list. He could even limit his choices to the list he had drawn up at the outset, and the consuls were free to appoint their associates as he did with his officials. As a result, the power of the consuls was actually enormous, and many people compared the consuls to kings in the republican era.
v) The Congress of Curia in the Republican Era, the Congress of Senduria and the Senate
The old citizens' district councils, both de facto and de jure, were the supreme authority of the state, were now under attack and collapsed, and in purely formal events and documents concerning clan relations, such as the oath of allegiance of the people to them when the consul or dictator took office, as the people swore allegiance to them as the kings of the past, and the legal privileges necessary for the admission of sons and wills, the district councils retained their old powers, but henceforth they could not carry out any decisions of a purely political nature, and soon after, Civilians also had the right to vote in the district council. The district council was actually based on the clan organization, and when the civil society was expanded, the old citizens lost the power to assemble and pass resolutions, and the pure clan relationship existed only among the old citizens, so after the political reform, the restrictions of the district were erased, and the commoners were able to establish their own clans to pass on the bloodline, even including new clans and foreigners, such as Claudius of the Sabine family.
All the functions and powers of the district councils, such as the election of the prefect, the decision on the admissibility of the law, and the decision on criminal appeal, were transferred to the Sentulian Assembly in the republican era. The small beginnings created by the Servius system, such as having the army vote on whether or not to declare war were now greatly developed, led to the great loss of the pre-eminence of the Assembly of the Centuria (Curia), which is now regarded by the people of Rome as a sovereign assembly.
In the district councils, the people who have the right to vote are unanimous and equal, so when the civil society expands, the country reaches a full-fledged democracy. But the Congress of Centurians took away the power of the district council, so this democracy would not take root in Rome, and the Assembly of Centurion avoided placing power in the hands of the aristocracy, placing it in the hands of the knights [the Roman class, meaning the middle class, such as merchants] and the wealthy.
As for the Senate, it was unaffected by the constitutional reforms, and the Senate, which held the Senate, was still entirely aristocratic, and he still maintained his old privileges, such as the veto of bills. As a matter of fact, the constitutional reform further expanded the powers of the Senate, because in the future, the appointment of civil society officials was more subject to the choice of the civil society, and it was subject to the approval or rejection of the senate of the aristocratic class, and only the appeal did not need the approval of the senate. When the royal government was abolished, the legal power of the Senate was expanded, because other matters were to be discussed in the Senate. After the abolition of the royal government, the Senate was enlarged, and the commoners could also join the Senate, and when voting on bills, these non-citizens were called "conscripti", they could not use the purple robes and red shoes to signify the Senate class, and they could not express their opinions when voting in the Senate, but only in group votes, so as to increase the number of votes.
During the Republic, the Senate gradually became an administrative body, in charge of finances and foreign affairs. Essentially the supreme authority of Rome, the incarnation of Rome, this official body was responsible for sending and receiving emissaries representing the city, assigning officials to administer public lands (including provincial governors), commanding armies, and distributing public funds. All laws must also be approved by the Senate before they can take effect. The Senate also had the power to appoint a city consul or nominate a dictator in a state of emergency, such as war. In the late republic, the Senate achieved the goal of avoiding the appointment of dictators by relying on Senate's resolution to defend the republic (Senatus consultum de Republica defendenda). The resolution declared martial law and gave the consuls the power to "take care that the Republic should come to no harm."
Soon after, the hierarchy of members of the nobility became apparent, especially when it came to general consultations, where those of high status were listed first. Chief among them was the Princeps Senatus, a position that soon became an enviable and revered position, and this clear division was also expressed in the consuls, who were divided into first and second consuls. At the same time, the aristocracy continued to monopolize the ruling class, both in law and in practice, there was a wall between the nobility and the plebeians, and the consuls were far less free than the king in appointing the senators, and the consuls were essentially the aristocratic class, and their actions and wills were more or less influenced by their own class, so that the consuls changed from those who were in charge of the senate to those who worked for the senate, and the senators could not be filled directly if they were vacant, and they could only be replenished when the tax household was investigated. As a result, the number of nobles remained the same or slowly decreased. In the royal era, the aristocracy was not allowed to join, and new clans often joined the nobility of the royal era, but in the republic, the highest desire of the commoners became a dumb appendage to the Senate. When the new political system replaced the old political system, the boundaries between the Romans and the foreigners, the guests and the citizens were erased, the guests were able to join the civil society, the power of the people was increased, although the nobles enjoyed many privileges, but the senate was by no means lost by the civil society, and the new citizens formed a new Roman civic group, and they would constantly launch a movement to storm the nobles to rule the castle, wanting to shake a castle not to occupy the last stronghold, but to open a gap in the city wall. Then came the era that belonged to Rome, a great era.
Unlike the simple and crude direct democracy of ancient Greece, which involved the whole people, the Roman republican system was based on a representative system, and its social unit still had family and clan elements, unlike the Greek colonial city-states, which would break the boundaries of family and clan, which can be said to be the fundamental difference between Roman democracy and Greek democracy. The republican system of Rome embodied the separation of powers and checks and balances to some extent, that is, democracy, but also a certain autocracy (such as the great power of consuls and dictators), which prevented both tyrants and mobs. Although it still could not get rid of the limitations of the era and class, it was indeed a very advanced system in that era, and it also laid the foundation for the expansion of Rome. The great ship of Rome is setting sail for the wide open world.
5. The Rising Political System of the Ancient Roman Republic: A Rising Star
Ancient Rome was originally a small and inconspicuous city-state in the middle of the Italian peninsula, but gradually grew into the hegemon of the Mediterranean world, and then made ancient Rome a huge empire spanning Europe, Asia and Africa, dominating the west of the world.
However, the rise of ancient Rome was not accidental, but inevitable. The rise and strength of any country is closely related to the political system of ancient Rome.
An effective political system is both a guarantee and a prerequisite for a strong country. So, how did the political system of ancient Rome ensure the rise of ancient Rome?
However, as the Western hegemon that once flourished in the world, Ancient Rome rose rapidly during the Republic period and became a rising star in the Western world. Throughout the historical development of ancient Roman society, the development of ancient Rome has gone through the royal period, the republican period and the imperial period.
So, what kind of political system did the political system of the ancient Roman Republic guarantee the rise of ancient Rome?
1) The political system of the ancient Roman Republic
The period from 509 BC to 146 BC was the period from the establishment of the ancient Roman Republic to the end of the Third Punic War, and it was also the period when ancient Rome gradually developed from a small city-state in a state of widowhood to the hegemon of the Mediterranean, and it was also the golden age of the successful rise of ancient Rome in the development of ancient Roman history.
However, the rapid rise of ancient Rome could not have been separated from the guarantee of the domestic political system of ancient Rome. So, what kind of political system did ancient Rome have during the Roman Republic?
In 510 B.C., the Romans deposed and expelled the king and carried out a series of political reforms, which enabled Rome to complete the transition from the monarchy to the republic.
At this time, the consuls of his colleagues replaced the king as the head of state by election and were responsible for exercising the power of head of state.
In order to avoid a repetition of the tragedy of the royal era, in the era of the Republic, ancient Rome began to limit the power of fellow consuls. They expanded the number of seats to two and clearly defined the term of office, and the consuls of their colleagues could only exercise state power during their term of office, thus achieving political balance in ancient Rome.
In ancient Rome, the plebeian class and the aristocracy fought for political power. As a result, the tribune system emerged in the ancient Roman government. As the head of the civilian class, the tribune must be from the civilian class to ensure that the tribune always represents the interests of the civilian class in the exercise of power.
The tribune system was the product of the class struggle between the common people and the aristocracy in ancient Rome, and the tribune system protected the interests of the common people in ancient Rome. The tribune system is similar to that of the consuls.
Since then, in the political arena of ancient Rome, the consuls, tribunes, and senators respectively expressed the interests of different classes, and they restrained each other politically, thus forming a political equilibrium of mutual restraint of "separation of powers".
After the continuous struggle of the plebeian class, all levels of officials in ancient Rome and even their colleague consuls could be opened to the plebeians, so that the plebeian class in ancient Rome finally enjoyed the same political status as the aristocracy. During this period, the development of the political system of ancient Rome reached its peak.
2) The political guarantee of the ancient Roman political system for the rise of the ancient Roman Republic
(1) Easing of class contradictions
As early as the reign of ancient Rome, with the vigorous development of the agricultural economy dominated by industry and commerce, the common people in ancient Rome developed rapidly, and became a political force that could not be ignored in the political arena of ancient Rome.
In order to gain political status, the plebeian class of ancient Rome fought against the aristocracy. Ancient Rome was forced to constantly adjust the internal relations of the ruling class, and then pushed the politics of ancient Rome to democratization.
During this period, class contradictions became the main contradictions in ancient Roman society. So although the socio-economic development of ancient Rome at this time was to a certain extent. However, due to the existence of class contradictions, the citizens of ancient Rome focused on how to fight for political rights, and the ruling class focused on how to alleviate class contradictions.
At this time, ancient Rome could not focus on how to improve the comprehensive national strength of ancient Rome, and the sharpness of class contradictions played a shackle role in the rise of ancient Rome.
With the establishment of the republican form of government in ancient Rome, after continuous adjustment of the class relations within the ruling body, the co-consuls became commoners, resulting in officials at all levels in ancient Rome being open to the common people, and the common people obtained the same political status, and the class contradictions were eased, no longer the main contradiction in society, and the domestic society was stable.
(2) Enhance the cohesion of domestic citizens
The political democratization of ancient Rome eased the class contradictions in ancient Rome, and a peaceful situation appeared in ancient Roman society at this time. The supremacy of national interests has gradually become the mainstream ideology of society, and how to make ancient Rome strong is the common desire of all ancient Roman citizens.
(3) Increasing military strength
Domestic political stability has led to a boom in the domestic economy. In the whole society, the concept of the ownership of the country is deeply rooted in the hearts of the people, and everyone regards himself as the master of the country.
At this time, ancient Rome began to wage frequent wars against foreign countries, expanding its territory by waging wars to accumulate wealth and improve its comprehensive national strength.
Of course, this policy was unanimously adopted by all the citizens, because it was the common desire of all the citizens of Rome. In order to support the needs of the country's wars, Roman citizens got up before dawn every day to plow, and after they were busy plowing, they had to undergo military training.
This state of the citizens of ancient Rome undoubtedly enhanced the cohesion of the ancient Roman army, enhanced the comprehensive combat effectiveness of the ancient Roman army, and made the ancient Roman army invincible on the battlefield.
As the territory of ancient Rome continued to expand, it quickly rose from a humble city-state to the hegemon of the Mediterranean.
The era of the Republic in ancient Rome was the most democratic era of the political system in ancient Rome, and the commoners enjoyed the same political status as the aristocracy. At the same time, this period was also the era of the most unity of ancient Rome, and it was also the golden age of the rise of ancient Rome.
It can be seen from this that the rapid rise of a country is inseparable from political guarantees, and politics is the most effective means to ensure domestic stability.
Bibliography:
Homer's Epic
The Story of the Romans
The Ancient Roman Empire
History of Rome
The Twelve Emperors of Rome
The Fall of the Roman Republic
A Study of the Constitutional Government of the Roman Republic
The Romans
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