1. Great Mongolia (end of the 10th century A.D.-1161)
Haidu was the first member of Genghis Khan's family to attain the throne of Khan, or the throne, and some called him Khan, meaning emperor. However, the title of Khan of Haidu was posthumously conferred by later generations. Since Haidu, the Genghis Khan family has officially become the Mongolian Golden Family. In the 11th century, Haidu rose to fame for defeating the Zaspur tribe and was revered as Haidu Khan, which marked the formation of the embryonic Mongol Empire.
By the time of Haidu's great-grandson, Hebul Khan, his regime was already known as the Great Mongol State. Hebul Khan fought against the powerful Jurchens to defend their territory. The Jin dynasty launched two wars of conquest against the Hebul regime (1135-1139 and 1147), but the Jin were defeated after penetrating deep into the steppes, and finally sued for peace with Hebule's fourth son, Khutu Thorn Khan, in 1147, ceding several border states to the Mongols.
However, the successor of Hebul Khan, Baba Khan, was captured by the Tatars and extradited to the Jin Dynasty, where he was brutally executed. In order to take revenge, Kutu Thorn Khan led an army to attack the Jin State. However, in 1161, the Jin Emperor and the Tatars fought back, destroying the first Mongol kingship, and the Mongols fell into a state of no khan, and they should have only existed as a leader. (Note: The word khan can be translated as chief or emperor in Mongolian.) It wasn't until 28 years later, in 1189, that the 28-year-old Temujin re-established the Mongol regime and became known as Genghis Khan, a title that was not earned only after the unification of the Mongolian plateau.
2. The Great Mongol Empire (1206-1635)
After years of warfare, Genghis Khan finally defeated powerful enemies such as Naiman, Tatar, and Kereh in 1206, and established the Mongol Empire, becoming its monarch.
He invaded Western Xia several times (1205, 1207, 1209) and forced Western Xia to sue for peace. From 1211 onwards, Genghis Khan turned south to attack Jin, capturing Zhongdu in 1215 and annihilating the Jin army in western Liaoxi and capturing Jin Beijing (present-day Ningchengxi, Inner Mongolia).
In 1218, the general Jebe was ordered to destroy Western Liao. In the following year, Genghis Khan personally led his sons and generals to wage war against Khorezm, using the tactics of division and encirclement, and conquering its important towns one by one. In 1220, Genghis Khan captured the cities of Burkhwarat and Samalgan, and his descendants also conquered the capital of Khorezm. The Mongol army pursued the ruler until his death and continued westward to the Crimean Peninsula.
In 1221, the Mongols occupied all of Khorasan, and Genghis Khan pursued the new ruler without success. Subsequently, the Daru Huachi superintendent was established in the occupied area, and the following year he returned to Samargan for the winter. In 1226, Genghis Khan set out to conquer Western Xia, which perished. In July of the same year, Genghis Khan died of illness, and his deathbed was ordered to destroy the Song Dynasty.
After that, the descendants of Genghis Khan continued to expand. In 1234, Ögedei decided to inherit his father's business and continue his westward expedition to conquer Persia and other places. In 1235, due to the obstruction of the Kipchak War, Ögedei sent reinforcements from the Western Expeditionary Army led by Batu, successfully occupied the area north of the Caspian Sea, and penetrated deep into Russia, conquering many important cities. After 1240, the Mongol army advanced to Poland, Hungary and other places, and won great victories. However, when news of Ögedei's death came, Batu withdrew with his army and established the Kipchak Khanate on the banks of the Volga River.
3. Yuan Empire (1271-1368)
In 1271, Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in Dadu (present-day Beijing), and since then, Beijing has gradually emerged as the political, economic, and cultural center of China for nearly 700 years. In 1276, the Yuan army conquered Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou), the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty, and ruled all of China. Subsequently, the Yuan Dynasty made several expeditions, including Japan, Annam (present-day northern Vietnam), and Burma, making Goryeo (Korea), Burma, Champa (Cambodia), and Annam its vassal states.
The expansion of the Yuan Dynasty into West Asia promoted exchanges between Europe and China, and the spread of technology was more rapid. Economic prosperity led to the development of handicrafts and commerce, cotton cultivation became widespread, the textile industry flourished, and cotton textile technology reached new highs. The smooth passage of light and sea transportation and the circulation of paper money further promoted the prosperity of commerce, making the Yuan Dynasty one of the richest countries in the world at that time. During the reign of Yuan Shizu, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo visited China and wrote in detail the prosperity of the Yuan capital, The Travels of Marco Polo.
In 1351, the Red Turban Army uprising led by Liu Futong swept the country, and Zhu Yuanzhang rose in the uprising, and after several years, he successively defeated Chen Youliang, Zhang Shicheng and other forces. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang's army approached the capital of Yuan, the Mongol rulers withdrew from the Central Plains, and the Yuan dynasty fell. However, the Mongol Empire continued to exist in the Saibei region until 1634.
4. Golden Horde (1243~1502)
The fief of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, was located west of the Irtysh River and north of Khorezm. In 1243, Batu returned from his expedition to the west and established the Kipchak Khanate on the banks of the Volga River, stretching from the Irtysh River in the east, to Russia in the west, to Lake Balkhash in the south, the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea in the south, and to the Arctic Circle in the north. Within the Khanate, Batu's brothers and their descendants had hereditary fiefdoms and armies, and the Mongol military aristocracy ruled over 10,000 households, 1,000 households, 100 households, and 10 households. In 1255, Batu died.
During the reign of Yuejibo, the Khanate reached its peak and moved its capital to the city of Belgosalay (near present-day Volgograd, Russia), and had friendly exchanges with the Ilkhanate, Egypt and other countries, and foreign trade flourished. A religion spread widely in the lower reaches of the Volga River, and Kipchak Khan and some Mongolian herders were converted.
In the late fourteenth century, the Mongol aristocracy experienced frequent foreign wars and internal strife, which led to the decline and disintegration of the khanate. In the early twenties of the fifteenth century, the Kipchak Khanate was reduced in territory, became known as the Great Horde, and fell in 1502.
5. White Horde (1225-1456)
Batu's elder brother Erda and his descendants ruled the regions of present-day Western Siberia and Kazakhstan, forming the White Horde. In the late 90s of the 14th century, the White Horde's Nayan Yedigu manipulated the puppet Khan and unified most of the territory of the Kipchak Khanate. In 1399, he defeated Lithuania and curbed its expansion. In 1408, he attacked Zaras, destroying several cities, but failed to capture Moscow. Between 1410 and 1412, he lost power and fled due to internal strife.
6. Blue Horde (1227--1400)
After the second Mongol expedition to the west, Batu's younger brother Xiban, as the main general of the western expedition, conquered Hungary, and was named the lord of the Southern Urals by Batu for his merits, and established the Blue Horde.
7. Ögedai Khanate (1225--1310)
The Ögedei Khanate was the fiefdom of Genghis Khan's third son, Ögedei, covering the upper reaches of the Irtysh River and the area east of Lake Balkhash, with its capital at Yemili (present-day Emin County, Xinjiang). After Ogedai succeeded to the throne, the fief was given to his son Guiyou. After Möngke Khan ascended the throne, due to repeated disputes among the queens of the Ögedai lineage, the fief was divided and divided among the kings. The descendants of Ögedai possessed each region, but eventually declined due to internal strife and external enemies, and in 1310 it was incorporated into the Chagatai Khanate.
8. Chagatai Khanate (1227-1369)
Founded by Genghis Khan's second son, Chagatai Khanate, the Chagatai Khanate had a vast territory in its heyday, stretching from Turpan and Lopbo in the east to the Amu River in the west, Mount Tarbagatai in the north, and Mount Hindu Kush in the south. After 1314, the Khanate was divided into two parts, East and West, with Alimari as the center in the east and Samarkand as the center in the west. In 1369, the Western Chagatai Khanate was seized from power by its general Timur.
9. Eastern Chagatai Khanate (1348-1514)
In 1348, Timur was proclaimed Khan in Aksu, and his ruling area became known as the Eastern Chagatai Khanate. The Khanate once coexisted with the Western Chagatai Khanate. In 1389, the youngest son of Timur the Bald Lu, Hei Erhuo, ascended the throne and moved the capital to Beishi Bali; In 1418, the grandson of the Black Son of Fire, Crooked Khan, moved the capital to Yili (present-day Yining City), so the Eastern Chagatai Khanate was also known as the "Kingdom of Besshin Bali" and "the Kingdom of Yili Rangli". By 1514, the Khanate was replaced by the Yarkand Khanate.
10. Yarkand Khanate (1514-1680)
In 1514, Sa'id Khan, a descendant of Timur Khan of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, founded the Yarkand Khanate, with its capital at Yarkand (Yarkand), and ruled most of the Western Regions. However, in 1680, the Khanate was defeated by Galdan and eventually incorporated into the Dzungar Khanate.
11. Ilkhanate (1253-1353)
The Ilkhanate, established by Genghis Khan's grandson Hulegu after his expedition to the west, has a vast territory, bordering the Amu Darya River in the east, the Mediterranean Sea in the west, the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus in the north, and the Persian Gulf in the south. It directly ruled present-day Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan in the South Caucasus, Georgia, Armenia, and Turkmenistan in Central Asia. The Kingdom of Herat in western Afghanistan was a vassal state, while the Romsultan Kingdom in Asia Minor, although nominally belonged, was in fact governed by officials from the Ilkhanate.
In 1253, Hulegu, the son of Tulei, led the Mongol army on his third expedition to Western Asia, invaded western Iran in October, and arrived in the valley of the two rivers, first pointing to the kingdom of Murayi. Hülegü carried a stone crossbow and firearms through Alimari and Samarkand to the city of Jieshi in Persia, calling on the kings of West Asia to jointly destroy Murayi.
In 1256, Hulegu led a Mongol army across the Amu Darya River and entered the territory of Murayi in June. The Mongol vanguard generals cowardly captured many fortresses and inflicted heavy losses on the enemy. Under pressure, the leader of the Murayi, Rukhnadin, sent his younger brother Shaxinsha to sue for peace, but Hulegü insisted that Ruknadine surrender in person. In November, the Mongol army stormed, Rukhnadine surrendered, and the capital city of Aramo Fort was captured. At the beginning of the following year, Rukhnadine and his people were executed, and Mura was razed.
In March 1257, Baizhu, who was stationed in Azerbaijan, joined Hülegü's army and continued his westward expedition, heading for Baghdad, the capital of the black-clothed food. At that time, the Abbasid caliph Mostasin, ruled the Black Eaters and the entire world of the Christians. In the winter of 1257, Hulegu and others led an army to besiege Baghdad, and launched a general attack early the following year, and the city gate was destroyed by artillery fire. In February, Mostashin surrendered, Baghdad fell, Mostashin was executed, and the Abbasids fell. Hulegu continued westward into Syria as far as Damascus, where it was halted by a counterattack by the Egyptian army, and he stayed in Thepis and established the Ilkhanate.
During the reign of Ghazan Khan (1295-1304), he carried out reforms, and on June 19, 1295, he led his soldiers to convert to religion, and on November 3 of the same year, he took the name Muhammad and called himself Sudan. After that, the Mongol nobility merged with the Iranian nobility, and the Ilkhanate became a state. After the death of Ghazan Khan, the Ilkhanate fell into chaos, and between 1335 and 1378, eight Ilhans vied for power and established feudal dynasties.
12. Jalal Dynasty (1336-1411)
Founded in 1340, it ruled Iraq, Azerbaijan, Mosul and Diyarbakir.
13. Muzafar Dynasty (1313-1393)
Founded in 1353, it ruled over Fars, Kerman, and Kurdistan, and was a vassal to Cairo. It was later destroyed by the Temurid Empire.
14. Selbedar (1337-1381)
Founded in 1353, it ruled northern Khorasan. After 1380, the dynasties established on the ruins of the Ilkhanate were destroyed by the Temurid Empire.
15. Timurid Empire (1370-1506)
Timur, the founder of the Timurid Empire, was born in the Mongolian Balras region south of Samarkand in the Western Chagatai Khanate, and the tribe moved to the Kashka River valley in the 14th century, where it remained nomadic but partially settled. Timur's wife was the daughter of Ghazan Khan of the Western Chagatai Khanate, so the History of the Ming Dynasty called her the Yuan Horse.
Between 1370 and 1405, the Timurid Empire expanded rapidly, defeating the Mabrik dynasty of Egypt, occupying Syria, defeating the Ottoman Turkish Empire, capturing the Bayezid Sultan alive, and eliminating the Delhi Sultanate in India, establishing a large Uzbek empire across West, Central and South Asia. The capital was originally Samarkand, and then moved to Herat in western Afghanistan. In 1405, Timur died of illness on the way to the Ming Dynasty, and the Ming Dynasty survived.
The Timurid Empire flourished culturally and was hailed as the "Timurid Renaissance" and the "Golden Age of Persian Literature and Art". In the middle of the 15th century, the descendants of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, Xiban, rose up in the Central Asian steppe, conquered Bukhara and Samarkand in 1500, established the Uzbek Khanate, and destroyed the Timurid Empire in 1506. The rulers of the Timurid Empire turned to India and founded the Mughal dynasty.
16. Mughal Empire (1526~1858)
In 1526, Timur's fifth grandson, Babur, invaded India and proclaimed himself Emperor of Hindustani, marking the beginning of Mughal rule in India. Babur then went on to unify North India through the Battle of Kannu in 1527 and the Battle of Gogra in 1529. In 1530, Humayun succeeded to the throne (1530~1556). In 1540, Humayun defeated the Bihar Afu □ chief Shersha at the Battle of Qunu and went into exile in Persia and the Afu □, and the Mughal rule in India was temporarily suspended. In 1555, Humayun reconquered the Indian plains, capturing Delhi and Agra, restoring Mughal rule in India.
Akbar succeeded to the throne in 1556 and introduced progressive internal reforms, adopted a tolerant religious policy, and expanded the social and political basis of Mughal rule in India. He established a centralized system, expanded the territory, unified the vast areas of the subcontinent, and promoted the social and economic development of India. By the time of Chahanjie (r. 1605~1627) and Shah Jahan (r. 1628~1658), the Mughal dynasty was at its peak. Culture and art have also entered a new stage of development. The art of this period is characterized by the combination of national traditions and Central Asian and Persian art, and the world-famous Taj Mahal Mausoleum can be used as a typical representative. In 1858, the Mughal dynasty became a British colony.
17. Khiva Khanate (1512-1785)
In the 16th century, Abuhai Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, founded the powerful Uzbek Khanate. Located in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River, the Khorezm Oasis ruled by the Caspian Sea in the west and the northern part of Khorasan in the south. Although the ruling class and aristocracy were Mongols, the inhabitants were mainly Uzbeks, followed by Turkmens, Karakalbak and Kazakhs.
At the beginning of the 16th century, Khorezm was conquered by Shaybani Khan. After his death, he was temporarily placed under Iranian rule. Around 1512, the local residents drove out the Iranian governor at the instigation of the leader of the *** and established an independent state by the Uzbek royal family Irbars (reigned 1512~1525) as Khan. The capital was originally in Urgench, but at the end of the 16th century it was moved to Khiva (present-day Kifa in the southern part of the Aral Sea). In the early years of the founding of the People's Republic of China, the political situation was turbulent It was conquered by Bukhara Khan in 1593. In 1598, independence was restored. After Abulkhaz Bahadur Khan ascended to the throne, the state became stronger, and he and his son Anusha (reigned 1663~1687) invaded the borders of Bukhara Khan several times.
In 1740, Khiva was conquered by Nader Shah of Iran. After Nader Shah's death, Khiva was freed from Iranian control, but civil strife grew. During the period of Muhammad Rahim Khan (1806~1825), the Khanate achieved political unity and became increasingly powerful. The Khanate became a Russian protectorate. In February 1920, under the attack of the local people and the Russian Red Army, the Khanate fell and the Khorezm Soviet People's Republic was established. In 1924 it was incorporated into Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
18. Kazakh Khanate (1456-1718)
In the middle of the fifteenth century, Kereh Khan, the son of Barak, a descendant of the last khan of the White Horde Jochi, took advantage of the defeat of the Khiva Khanate of Abul Khair Khan to the Vars, and together with Janibek Khan, led some nomadic tribes to migrate eastward, entered the territory of the Chagatai descendants south of Lake Balkhash, and established the Kazakh Khanate on the vast land of the Chu River and the Talas River. A united Kazakh nation was formed from this time. A new nation was born.
In 1628, after the death of Esmu Khan, Jangar Khan succeeded to the throne. In the east, Dzungaria became strong and often attacked the Kazakh Khanate. Jangar joined forces with Bukhara Khan and Yarkand Khan to counter the attack of the Dzungar nobles. In 1652, after the death of Jangar Khan in the war with Dzungaria, the ruling groups within the Kazakh Khanate competed for power, and the more powerful sultan established himself as Khan, each dominating one side.
In 1718 (the 57th year of Kangxi), after the death of Touke Khan, the Kazakh Khanate gradually declined, and the little khans of each Yuzi did not obey the jurisdiction of the Great Khan and went their own way. From 1755 to 1757 (20th to 22nd year of Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty), the Qing Dynasty lifted the threat of the Kazakh Khanate from the Dzungar aristocracy. Some herders moved back to Altay, Tacheng and Ili to graze.
From the middle of the 18th century, Tsarist forces intensified their invasion of the Kazakh steppe and the area east and south of Lake Balkhash, which was originally under the jurisdiction of General Ili of the Qing Dynasty. In 1863 (the ninth year of Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty), more than 3,000 families of the Kazakh Heizai tribe moved into the Ili and Bortala regions. After the demarcation of the border, many ethnic Kazakhs moved into Xinjiang.
19. Crimean Khanate (1430-1783)
The Crimean Khanate was founded around 1430 by Haji Gelai, a descendant of Batu's younger brother Bald Timur. The first coins issued during his reign date 1441-1442, and it is known that he reigned until 1466. The khanate he founded was bounded by the lower Don River in the east, the lower Dnieper in the west, and the cities of Yerez and Tambov in the north. In 1454, Haji Gelai made Bahchesarai, the former city of Chirkye, on the south bank of the Crimean River, the capital. The Gelai dynasty, founded by Haji, lasted until the Russian conquest in 1771 and was finally annexed to Russia in 1783.
20. Kazan Khanate (1445-1552)
The Kazan Khanate was founded in 1445 by Uru Muhammad, a descendant of Batu's younger brother Bald Timur, and his son Mahmuti. Ulu Muhammad was assassinated by his son Mahmutik in 1446. During the reign of Makhmutik (1446-1464), the creation of the new founding state was finally completed. The territory was the former Bolgar kingdom in the middle reaches of the Volga River and the Kama River basin. Makhmutik's son and successor, Kazan Khan Ibrahim, conquered Vyatka in 1468. Ibrahim's son, Amin, defeated the army that had defeated Muscovy in 1506.
In June 1552, Tsar Ivan IV sent troops to besiege the city of Kazan with artillery. The city was captured on 2 October, and the Kazan Khanate was annexed by Russia. The fall of the Kazan Khanate marked a change in the relationship between the Russians and the Mongols in which they ruled and were ruled.
21. Astrakhan Khanate (1466-1783)
It was built in 1466 by King Qasim, the grandson of the Golden Horde Kuchuk Mahama. The capital was located in the city of Astrakhan, and its territory included the lower Volga River and the steppe of the South Caucasus, bordering the Kazan Khanate to the north, the Crimean Khanate to the west, and the Nogai Khanate to the east. The inhabitants are mainly engaged in animal husbandry and fishing, and agriculture also accounts for a certain proportion. The handicraft industry is relatively developed, and fur and tanning are famous. It is located in a transportation hub, connecting the Caucasus, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea by land and water, and has developed domestic and foreign trade.
In 1554, Ivan IV sent 30,000 Russian troops to attack the Astrakhan Khanate, overthrew Yamgurchei Khan, and supported Tervish Ali to power, and the khanate became a vassal state of Russia.
In 1556, Ivan IV sent troops to expel Ali Khan and formally annexed the Astrakhan Khanate.