Chinese Architecture, by Ernst Berchmann, edited by Zhao Shengwei, translated by Ye Ming and Du Weihua, December 2021 edition of China Pictorial Press.
People who know the history of modern Chinese architecture know the American architect Mao Fei and the Chinese scholar Le Jiazao. The former designed a large number of new buildings that conformed to the principles of modern materials and structural techniques, while at the same time having the official architectural style of the Qing Dynasty; the latter's book "History of Chinese Architecture" published in 1935 was the first of its kind in China.
Discussions and studies of the two men's biographies and their designs or writings are not uncommon, but two questions seem to remain to be answered: Although Mao had the opportunity to visit important Chinese cities such as Beijing, Guangzhou, and Nanjing, and to visit examples of high-grade architecture such as the Forbidden City, his articles on Chinese architecture do not contain detailed survey materials other than a general overview. Why was he able to design a Chinese-style building with relatively accurate shapes and a variety of types? Le Shi is not a member of the Chinese construction society, and should not have as many fieldwork opportunities as Liang Sicheng and Liu Dunzhen. His book mentions many examples that have not been described in the publications of the Construction Society, and where did they originate?
A further question is that in the early 20th century, most architects were not educated in the history of ancient Chinese architecture, and it was difficult to have sufficient time and conditions to conduct amateur fieldwork, so what was the sample they used to design Chinese-style architecture? These problems may seem small, but they are also problems that must be faced in the study of Chinese style architecture and the history of Chinese architecture. Some of their answers were actually in some publications of the time, and the German scholars Ernst Berschmann's books "Chinese Architecture and Landscape" and "Chinese Architecture" were among the best.
In recent years, the study of the history of Chinese architectural historiography has made great progress. But as of now, the focus of academics is only on the research and exposition of the China Construction Society, especially Liang Sicheng, Liu Dunzhen and Lin Huiyin. Although the fact that Berchmann was once a communication researcher at the Construction Society is well known, in recent years, there has been no shortage of more systematic introductions to his life, experience in China and academic achievements, and more scholars have discussed the anthropological perspective of his architectural history research and its differences with liang, Liu and other people's technical and French studies, but whether in China or In Europe, the promotion of his Chinese architectural creation and research at that time was rarely discussed. The main reason for this, in the author's opinion, is not only that there is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English readers to Berchmann's German writings, but also that scholars on both sides are relatively isolated in their research methods, that is, they have failed to consciously refer to written documents with field materials, and compare foreign treatises with indigenous studies.
This article intends to compare Berchmann's "Chinese Architecture and Landscape" and "Chinese Architecture" with some of the subsequent Chinese style architectural designs and architectural history writings. The author believes that this research can not only reveal the influence of Berchmann on modern Chinese architecture, but also help us understand the interaction between academic research and architectural practice in the history of modern Chinese architecture, the exchanges and improvements between Chinese and foreign scholars, and the strengths of Chinese scholars in Western studies.
According to material compiled by He Guotao, Berchmann entered the Charlottenburg Institute of Technology (technische Hochschule Charlottenburg) in Berlin in 1891 to study housing architecture. From 1896 to 1901 he was the chief in charge of the construction of houses, working in the Real Estate Administration of the East Prussian Army. From 1902 to 1904, he worked in China as an architectural officer (part of the German colonial forces in East Asia). In August 1906, he came to China as a scientific adviser to the German legation in Beijing, during which time he conducted three years of research and research on Chinese architecture. By 1909, he had visited 14 of China's 18 provinces at the time, collected and taken a large number of photographs, and conducted actual surveys of some ancient buildings.
Berchmann's work was one of the few (only two) major monographs of the early 20th century that gave a comprehensive introduction to Chinese architecture. Although its German text may hinder the acceptance of the author's views by Chinese and English readers, the large number of exquisite photos and mappings undoubtedly provide a valuable reference for architects at that time to understand Chinese architecture. The architect who benefited the most from it was Mao Fei. Mao Fei's Chinese-style architectural design has always reflected his pursuit of Qing Dynasty official-style architecture. When he first arrived in China in 1914 and entered the Forbidden City, he was deeply struck by its pure and solemn architecture, and then praised it as the most perfect architectural complex in the world. From 1919 to 1926, when designing the campus building of Yenching University in Beijing, his firm took full advantage of the favorable conditions in Beijing and observed the Forbidden City up close. To this day, the Second Historical Archive of China still preserves the documents that American engineers asked to go to the three major halls for photography.
After the completion of the Yenching University project, Mao Fei's activities in China were mainly concentrated in the south. In 1923, he was invited by Sun Ke, the mayor of Guangzhou, to plan the city, and in 1927 he served as the chief adviser to the Capital Plan of the National Government of Nanjing, and in 1931 he was commissioned to design the Memorial Cemetery of the National Revolutionary Army in Nanjing. Although there are fewer and fewer opportunities to directly borrow from the physical objects of Beijing's official architecture, he can use other visual materials related to Chinese architecture as a design reference. Berchmann's book "Chinese Architecture" is undoubtedly one of them. Mao Fei's design clearly reflects the influence of Berchmann's writings. In particular, his design of the six-pillar, five-story archway for the Fallen Cemetery, in addition to a one-third reduction in the proportion and a reduction in the number of buckets, the overall shape and most parts are completely copied from the survey and mapping of the "Qingxi Tomb Stone Arch" in Bershiman's work.
The large archway of the Nanjing National Revolutionary Army Memorial Cemetery. Mao Fei was photographed in 1931.
The tomb of the cemetery's plum petal plan also clearly refers to the shape of "a cemetery on Putuo Mountain" in Berchmann's work. For the memorial tower of the cemetery, some scholars have believed that it is a restoration of the Pagoda of Nanjing Dabao'en Temple in the Ming Dynasty, which was destroyed in the middle of the 19th century during the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, but compared with the photos of the "Flower Pagoda of the Six Banyan Trees Temple in Guangzhou" in Berchmann's work, we can see the high degree of similarity between the two. In addition, the lotus leaf vase of the stone balustrade in front of the monument and the stacked cloud pillar head shape of the pillar can also be found in The works of Berchmann.
Qing Xiling Stone Arch.
Flower Pagoda of Guangdong Six Banyan Trees Temple.
Lejazao was also a beneficiary of Berchmann's writings. In his later years, the scholar who aspired to study Chinese architecture in middle age said with emotion about the research conditions he had: "His original plan was mainly based on physical observation, and the room was tiring, and the cost of travel was not paid." Therefore, in addition to the old Beijing, the provinces investigate and pay directly for the dream. Fortunately, the publications of the time provided him with some convenience. Therefore, he also said: "Fortunately, when he was born in the world, the photography and printing industry was developed, and there were many buildings in the landscape, so although they did not go out of the city, they could still be sought on paper." Comparing Lejiazao's "History of Chinese Architecture" with Berchmann's two works, it can be seen that Berchmann's work is part of Lejiazao's paper material. For example, the Yuan and Ming sections of chapter 13 ("The City") of Le Jiazao's book", "Map of the History of Beijing in the Four Dynasties of the Liaojin Dynasty", should refer to the "Floor Plan of Beijing" in "Chinese Architecture". In addition, he painted some illustrations based on pictures from Berchmann's writings.
The picture on the left shows the Prince Pagoda in Putuo Mountain, Zhejiang Province, and the picture on the right shows the multicolored glass pagoda in Yuquan Mountain in Beijing.
Mao Fei's design and LeJiazao's study of Chinese architectural history either refers to or depicts images from Berchmann's writings, and this discovery prompts us to examine the influence of the latter on a larger scale. In fact, Berchmann's writings not only favored Mao Fei and Le Jiazao, but also the objects of reference and even criticism by other Chinese architects and architectural historians.
Guo Weijie pointed out that the six-pillar and five-story archway of the Nanjing Memorial Cemetery was designed by Dong Dayou, who was working at Maofei Office at the time. This fact shows that Dong Dayu was influenced by Berchmann's writings. This influence can be seen at least in the Shanghai Gymnasium designed by Dong Dayou in 1931. Comparing it with the shape of the agate pillar and the knotted ribbon pattern of the two buildings in the "Beijing Biyun Temple Han White Jade Pagoda" in "Chinese Architecture", we can see the connection between the two, although the upper and lower owls of the Sumerus made by Dong Dayu have been simplified.
In addition, the Tibetan Scripture Building in Nanjing's Sun Yat-sen Cemetery, designed in 1935 by the architect Lu Shusen, a member of the Construction Society, also benefited from "Chinese Architecture". This rather pure Qing Dynasty official style building does not seem to have a corresponding physical object in the book, but it and the "Suzhou Xuanmiaoguan Miluo Pavilion" in Bo Shiman's book are added to the roof of the mountain with a slightly smaller overhanging mountaintop, which is a common feature that reflects the connection between the two. How to transform the roofs of Chinese buildings into useful spaces is a challenge in modern Chinese style architectural design.
Architects have tried to open up slot windows on Chinese roofs according to Western methods for ventilation and lighting, but the result has been a weakening of the Chinese style of the roof. Miroku's technique of raising the center of the summit with the top of the mountain, attaching a hanging summit, and using the interval between the two roofs to open the window, provided an excellent model for the design of the Tibetan scripture building. The difference between the Tibetan Scripture Building in Lu Shusen's work and the Miluo Pavilion in Bershiman's work reflects a normative effort, that is, the architect did not copy the original architectural style, but adopted the practice of Qing Dynasty official architecture, setting up flat railings and octagonal patios (interiors). These are in turn the language of ancient official architecture obtained by the Construction Society through the study of the "Rules of Qing-style Construction", "Construction of the French Style" (Song Dynasty), and the investigation of the Guanyin Pavilion of Dule Temple in Jixian County. The same roofing practice can be seen in the building of the Institute of Social Sciences of the Academia Sinica in Nanjing, designed by Yang Tingbao in 1947.
The design of the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum in Nanjing in 1925 and the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall in Guangzhou in 1926 coincided with the publication of Berchmann's book. The two main buildings do not clearly follow any examples provided by Berchmann's work in terms of overall shape and detailing. Architect Lü Yanzhi, who worked as Mao Fei's draftsman, was involved in the design of the Chinese-style campus architecture of Jinling Women's University (Nanjing) in 1919, so his knowledge of traditional Chinese architecture should have another source. However, from the individual sketches and details of the two complexes, it is still clear that he consulted Berchmann's writings. Through comparison, it is not difficult to find that the stigmas, pillars and even the shapes of the Huabiao at both ends of the square in front of the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum Shrine are the same as the Huabiao in "Chinese Architecture and Landscape" and "Chinese Architecture".
The Tibetan scripture building of the Sun Yat-sen Cemetery in Nanjing. Lu Shusen in 1935.
The above examples show that most architects in the 1920s and 1930s still lacked a systematic understanding of Chinese architecture and were unable to conduct field investigations. In this case, some pictorial materials about Chinese architecture serve as references for Chinese architectural design and related discourses. Berchmann's "Chinese Architecture and Landscape" and "Chinese Architecture" record a rich variety of Chinese architecture, and the pictures are clear, so they are widely valued by scholars. It is also worth noting that although the materials in Berchmann's writings are extensive and diverse from the 14 provinces of China at that time, the above-mentioned architects have no intention of imitating the local style of decoration or exaggeration, but prefer to modify them with reference to the northern official architecture of the Qing Dynasty. Thus, through his own research, Berchmann served the creation of Chinese architecture in the 1920s and 1930s, or, as Fu Chaoqing put it, "the history of the bureaucratization of new chinese architecture in the 20th century."
Not only that, but through these materials and his own insights, Berchmann also had a certain influence on the study of The history of Chinese architecture in modern Times led by the Construction Society. From 1924 to 1927, while Liang Sicheng and Lin Huiyin were still studying at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, the English edition of Berchmann's Chinese Architecture and Landscape and Chinese Architecture were published successively. But Liang Sicheng was not satisfied with their inclusion in the works of Chinese architecture by other Western scholars of the same period. Liang Sicheng commented in 1947: "None of them understood the grammar of Chinese architecture and knew nothing about the description of Chinese architecture." However, this does not mean that he refuses to refer to the research of these Westerners, such as the "Architectural Design Reference Atlas" compiled in 1935 with his student Liu Zhiping, which includes the classification of Chinese architectural details such as "platform foundation", "stone railing", "storefront", "pillar foundation", and "glazed tile", which also have detailed corresponding materials in Berchmann's works.
Huabiao of the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum in Nanjing.
Liang Sicheng's work also uses some of the investigation materials of Berchmann's works, such as the Peking Xishan Wuliang Hall in his "History of Pictorial Chinese Architecture", which is quoted from Berchmann's works, and Liang Sicheng also notes that the book's Beiping Xishan Biyun Temple King Kong Throne Pagoda is also depicted from Berchman's work. However, it should be noted that Liang Sicheng's depiction of the Kongo Throne Tower has removed the carvings in the original drawing, which shows that his perspective on Chinese architecture is different from that of Berchmann. Kogel once said: "Liang Sicheng tried to find a new expression of Chinese national architecture according to the Western academic system, while Berchmann took a holistic approach to covering a culture that was still alive." The two different expressions of the King Kong Pagoda further illustrate that for Berchmann, architecture is a carrier of meaning, and he cannot ignore its meaning; for Liang Sicheng, the shape and structure of traditional architecture are more important, because only they have reference significance for modern architecture.
In 1932, Berchmann sent a letter to the China Construction Society through Liang Longjun, the Chinese acting office in Berlin, and attached his book "China Pagoda", expressing his hope to become a communication researcher of the China Construction Society. Berchmann was subsequently hired by the Construction Society, and his work was thus better known to the members of the Construction Society. In March 1932, in the "Bulletin of the China Construction Society" Volume 3, No. 1, "Notes of the Society", it was mentioned that Berchmann's book donation and another communication researcher of the Construction Society, the German scholar Gustav Ecke, cooperated with Chinese members Zhai Duzhi and Ye Gongchao to excerpt and translate the donated book. In September of the same year, the "Chronicle of the Society" in the second issue of the third volume of the "Huizhan Journal" also included Zhu Qizhao's explanation of The book donated by Bershiman. Other examples in Berchmann's writings, such as "Suzhou Xuanmiaoguan" and "Xikang Ya'an GaoYique" in Chinese Architecture, should also provide valuable clues for the China Construction Society to conduct an investigation of ancient architecture according to Tu Suoji. In addition, Wang Biwen (Puzi), a member of the Construction Society, published a monograph "Chinese Architecture" in 1943, and the illustrations in the book, such as "Suzhou Xuanmiaoguan Miluo Pavilion", "Beijing Miaoying Temple Pagoda", and "Sichuan Guanxian Bamboo Rope Bridge", were also taken from Bo Shiman's works.
The King Kong Throne Pagoda at Biyun Temple in Xishan, Beiping.
Exchanges with foreign counterparts have also enabled Chinese scholars to achieve the goal of contrast and transcendence. For example, in June 1937, Bao Ding, a member of the Construction Society, published a paper entitled "Preliminary Analysis of Tang and Song Pagodas", which discussed the typological characteristics and era characteristics of ancient Chinese pagodas. In the foreword to the article, he mentioned Berchmann's research and praised: "There is no shortage of people from the East and the West who have investigated and studied Chinese pagodas... The stupa by Professor Berchmann is particularly wonderful. But he then pointed out their shortcomings in editing methods and research methods and their own direction: "Emperor Ranjun's great works were not read for the first time. Moreover, the stupas are only described individually, and they are not analyzed as a generation, which is particularly inconvenient for beginners. Because he did not worry about the ugliness, he made a preliminary analysis of the style of the Tang and Song dynasties extracted from the essence of the mainland stupas. ”
This practice of presenting one's own views in the course of dialogue with foreign studies is particularly evident in the writings of Liang Sicheng and Lin Huiyin. Regarding the writing of The History of Chinese Architecture by Liang and Lin, the author has made several monographs, and it should be emphasized here that Lin Huiyin's explanation of the origin of the anti-curved roof of Chinese architecture actually includes criticism of some Western scholars, including Berchmann. Lin Huiyin said:
The roof is the most practical part of the building,...... The roof was originally more than just the roof of the house, but because of the real problem of rain and sunlight, the part of the eaves had long been expanded. It is not difficult to make the eaves protrude, but the eaves are low, low is obstructing the light, and the rainwater flows in a rapid, and the problem of splashing water under the eaves occurs. To solve this problem, we invented the cornice, using a double-layered tile rafter, so that the eaves edge is slightly turned up, slightly curved. Because of the beautiful relationship, the eaves of the corner of the house are even more curved. This cornice with a curved front and four corners is arranged in a very natural and reasonable structure, and it can almost be said that it is promoted by the structural method. ...... In general, it has always been regarded as a very peculiar and mysterious roof curve, and there is nothing beyond the structural principles, and it is unnatural, and it is very successful in terms of beauty and practicality.
Although Lin Huiyin did not necessarily read German directly, she must have known some of the views of Berchmann and other Western colleagues, which had been summarized by the British scholar Walter Perceval Yetts and introduced in the Journal of the China Construction Society in 1930. According to Yeats' research, some people in the West once believed that China's anti-curved roof was a trace of the tabernacle inhabited by ancient Chinese nomadic ancestors, and others believed that it imitated the branches of the fir tree, and those kissing beasts represented the squirrels that perched on the branches. Berchmann said: "Chinese the impulse to adopt these curves comes from their desire to express the rhythm of life. ...... Through the curved roof building, it is possible to get as close as possible to natural forms, such as the outline of rocks and trees. Lin Huiyin, like Liang Sicheng, believed that the structure of Chinese architecture was not only reasonable but also functional, and the roof shape was no exception, so she agreed with a view put forward by the British architectural historian Ferguson in the 1850s, rather than with all the Western scholars mentioned above. She continued:
Foreigners, because of the special form of Chinese roof, are very different from the Various Departments of Europe and The West, and they have paid more attention to it earlier. Some say that the Chinese roof is based on the tabernacle of the nomadic era, some say that the pictographic pine branches cover the sky, some see the Chinese rafters as grotesque, some say that Chinese architecture is similar to children's plays, and some are all from the aspect of the beast dragon head, the meaning of the discussion is meaningless, and it is almost not worth taking time to disprove here. In short, this curved roof has been analyzed from the structural point of view, and in principle from the carving facilities, and its aesthetic and practical aspects are significantly clear, which cannot be denied. Our structural reality can simply acknowledge its great artistic success.
Berchmann's association with the China Construction Society also shows that the formation of the discourse of Chinese architectural history is not the result of self-talk and isolated research by several pioneers of modern Chinese architectural history; their exchanges and dialogues with other scholars, especially foreign scholars, are also very important. This correlation is particularly important for the study of the history of Chinese architectural historiography.
The case of Berchmann's influence on modern Chinese architecture also reminds us once again that in modern times, the development of Chinese architecture has gradually emerged as a process of globalization, and in-depth research and understanding of modern and contemporary Chinese architecture also requires a cross-cultural perspective. Comparing written literature with field material, and comparing extraterritorial treatises with indigenous research, not only helps us to understand others more deeply, but also helps us to know ourselves more clearly.
This article is selected from the preface of "Chinese Architecture", "Research on Traditional Chinese Architectural Forms" (originally published in architectural journal, 2011, No. 5), which is abridged and modified from the original text, and the illustrations used in the article are from this book, which has been authorized by the publishing house.
The original author 丨 Lai Delin
Excerpt 丨An also
Editor 丨 Chongming
Proofreading 丨 Liu Jun