Abstract: The remains related to the stove and the kitchen have always been the focus of the excavators. By combing through the remains of large-scale palace buildings and ordinary residential sites in the three generations period, this paper finds that there are special kitchen facilities in the large-scale palace complexes of the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties, which are rare in ordinary residential sites, and the remains of the kitchen are located on the east or southeast side of the main building, so it is called "East Room" or "East Kitchen". During the three generations period, it has become a regulation to set up kitchen buildings in the east of the main building, so it is called "East Kitchen System". In fact, after the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, especially after the Qin and Han Dynasties, until the Ming and Qing Dynasties, not only the palace complexes followed this system, but also the ordinary houses were mostly east kitchens.
"The people take food as the sky", the same principle in ancient and modern times, whether it is the production and processing of food raw materials, or the production of food, it has always been the most important thing in people's lives. Although "food" has been recorded in many historical documents, it is still not enough to restore the trajectory of people's cooking activities in the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, and archaeological materials will be a useful supplement to solve this problem. In archaeological excavations, charred grain particles and plant seeds and a large number of animal bones are often seen, on the basis of which we can judge what the ancients ate, but we cannot describe in detail the methods, places and related systems of the ancients to make food. Judging from archaeological findings, many residential sites from the Neolithic to the Two Weeks period often find stoves related to cooking kitchens, and even some features show that they are the remains of cookers. When the special kitchen space is independent from the living space, who can have such kitchen conditions under what circumstances, and how the relevant kitchen system is, etc., are all academic issues that have yet to be solved. This paper uses archaeological data and combined with historical documents to sort out and analyze the remains of the cooks and related kitchen systems in the Xia Shang and Western Zhou dynasties.
1. Analysis of the remains of the kitchen in archaeological excavations
Very early, Mr. Zou Heng pointed out that there were kitchen remains in the architectural remains of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, and believed that the East Wing of the Base Site of the Fengchi Group A might be the kitchen: "The 'East Room' mentioned in "Township Shooting", "Public Food Doctor", "Special Animal", "Shao Prison", and "Yousi che" all refer to the kitchen, and the East Wing of the Fengchi may be the kitchen" [1]. Later, Mr. Yang Hongxun had a fire pond in the east wing of the base site of the Zhou Yuan Feng's Chick Group A group, and also proposed that "it seems to be used for cooking, and here or the 'east room' recorded in the "Rites" and so on is used as a kitchen", and the back garden "The fire pond was also found on the 'east side', or also used for the kitchen".[2] According to archaeological data, special kitchen remains have been found in the ruins of capital cities such as Erlitou, Yanshi Shangcheng, Huanbei Shangcheng, Anyang Yin Ruins and Zhou Yuan.
(1) Erlitou ruins
Miyagi Castle is located in the south-central part of the Erlitou site, and more than ten large rammed earth building sites have been found inside it. Among them, special kitchen remains have been found in the base sites of the First and Second Palaces.
1. The base site of The First Palace
Located in the southwest of Miyagi Castle, The no. 1 palace site is a large courtyard-style building site, built on a large rammed earth platform with a slightly square plan, concave in the northeast, and the recessed part is 20.8 meters wide from east to west and 47.8 meters long from north to south. The west side of the base is 98.8 meters long, the north side is 90 meters long, the east side is 96.24 meters long, and the south side is 107 meters long, with a total area of 9585 square meters. The No. 1 Palace Base Camp was built in the third phase of the Erlitou Culture.
There are 4 large pillar holes in the middle of the north section of the east wall of the No. 1 palace base site, which extend more than 4 meters inward from the large pillar holes no. 34 and 43 on the inside of the east wall, and a section of east-west wooden bone wall is found on the south side, which should be an independent building. H34 on the north side of the building is a stepped crypt with a "scoop-shaped" plan and cobblestones at the bottom of the pit (Fig. 1).
The first person to recognize the room in the middle of the East Room as a kitchen was Mr. Yang Hongxun. He recognized in the "General Theory of Palace Archaeology" that "the East Room is arranged with the twists and turns of the edge of the platform, and the inner corridor of the northern section has three deeper and larger, slightly in the form of a box room, which is easily reminiscent of the 'East Room' that the Zhou Dynasty inherited from ancient times to make for the kitchen, and the remnants of the fire pond have indeed been found here" [5]. Mr. Du Jinpeng also believes that this site is the "East Kitchen", and the north side of the house is scoop-shaped, with steps, and the bottom is paved with pebbles, H34 is the cellar room of the East Kitchen.
Figure 1 Floor plan of the base site of the No. 1 Palace and the location of the East Kitchen at the Erlitou Site
At present, the nature of the base site of the No. 1 Palace is mainly said by the court, the royal palace is said, the former dynasty is said to be sleeping, and the zongmiao is said to be used for both dynasties and sleeping [7]. Some of these ideas were derived from the restoration of the palace's columnar structure. To judge the nature of a building, in addition to the column network structure, building scale, and documentary records, it is also necessary to combine the phenomenon of relics around the building.
Many sacrificial remains and two animal bone pits were found within the base site of the No. 1 palace building, and sacrificial remains were also found on the main hall pedestal and courtyard. There are three tombs with special burial methods on the north side of the main hall of The First Palace, and it can be seen from the location, size and direction of the tombs, and the burial methods of human bones that this is not a normal burial method, but has a relatively special ceremony. The large hall, the vast courtyard, the large and widely distributed sacrificial remains, and the sacrificial ruins of special significance indicate that this should be a building for ritual activities.
2001V.H1 (original excavation report H80) behind the site of The First Palace, with an irregular oval shape on the upper part and a regular rectangle on the lower part,[8] with a foot socket on the long side. Groundwater is visible at 7.8 metres above the surface, and the depth of the drill pit is 10 metres. The pit fill soil contains water rust spots. There is a red clay with a thickness of 2 to 3 cm at the bottom of the pit, and a rammed soil with a thickness of 0.8 to 1 meter on the top of the red clay. Some scholars believe that "from the shape, scale, depth and collapse of the pit wall, the characteristics of the pit are similar to those of the well." However, the filling soil is pure, the rammed near the bottom, the bottom is paved with a red-burnt soil layer, and there is basically no relics found, which is different from the general well. The pit is the deepest remains ever found at the Erlitou site, and it is speculated that it belongs to the 'Lingyin' class of caves used to hide ice." [9] From the meticulous treatment of the bottom of this deep pit, the surface of the red-boiled earth, and the rammed on the red-boiled soil, it should not be a well, but a pit for storing ice or a remnant of placed items. A large number of animal skeletons have been found in the underground cold storage room of the Warring States period of zheng han's ancient city of the same nature[10] and the Lingyin ruins [11] found in Qinyong City.
2. The base site of the Second Palace
The base site of The Second Palace is located in the northeast of Miyagi Castle, built using the eastern wall of the Palace City Wall, and is also an independent courtyard-style building base site, about 150 meters southwest of the No. 1 base site. The base site of the Second Palace is also built on a rectangular rammed earth platform, which is 72.8 meters long from north to south, 57.5 to 58 meters wide from east to west, and covers an area of more than 4,000 square meters. The foundation is rammed, and the rammed earth area is up to 3 meters thick. On the pedestal there is the main hall, the east, south and west three sides of the cloister and four walls, the south of the doorway, courtyard and guard houses. The north side of the base site of the second palace is the north wall and the short corridor on the inside, the east and west sides have walls and corridors, the south side has a corridor inside and outside the wall, there is a passage in the middle of the south wall, and there is a schoolhouse on the west side, which divides the south wall and the inner outer corridor into east and west sections. Courtyard in the middle. A "great tomb" (D2M1) was found between the main hall and the north wall. The entire palace building layout is regular, the structure is rigorous, and the scale is smaller than the No. 1 base site. Two underground drainage facilities were found in the courtyard. The base site of the Second Palace was built in the third phase of the Erlitou culture and continued to be used until the fourth period of the Erlitou culture or later.
There is a room in the middle of the east hall of the second palace site, which relies on the east wall on the east side, and a separate wall on the north, west and south sides. To the south of the Western Wall there is a gap of 0.95 meters wide, which should be a doorway. The house is 6.1 meters long from north to south and 3.5 meters wide from east to west. The wall of this room is made of a digging base trough, the width of the trough is 0.5 to 0.55 meters, the depth is 0.7 meters, and the bottom of the trough is placed at a certain distance with a flat surface of red sand stone as a pillar foundation, and then the column is used as the wooden bone of the wall (Figure 2). Mr. Yang Hongxun and Du Jinpeng considered the building to be the "East Kitchen" of the base site of the No. 2 Palace[13], and the "Chinese Archaeology Xia Shang Scroll" compiled by the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences also adopted this view, and directly marked the building as the remains of the "East Kitchen" in the floor plan of the first and second palace sites of the Erlitou site.[14]
Figure 2 Floor plan of the base site of the No. 2 Palace and the location of the East Kitchen at the Erlitou Site
There are also many understandings of the nature of the Second Palace at the Erlitou Site, mainly including the Zongmiao Theory, the Mausoleum Theory, and the Xiashe Theory[ 15]. Many of the judgments on the nature of the second palace are based on the "great tomb" behind the main hall. However, Mr. Du Jinpeng realized that "whether it is the 'Zongmiao Theory' or the 'Mausoleum Theory', the most important archaeological basis is that there is a 'great tomb' behind the main hall, and if the 'Great Tomb Theory' is not established, the current 'Zongmiao' and 'Mausoleum' theories will lose the most fundamental premise" [16]. For the nature of the large tomb behind the main palace, scholars have conducted a convincing discussion, "the so-called rectangular tomb and the filling soil in the tomb that has been 'rammed' should be the foundation pit dug and rammed before the well is dug and built to prevent the collapse of the well wall, and the so-called robbery hole should be the wellbore of the well." "'The small, dark, supposedly secluded place behind the main hall is a place where people move frequently' (frequently fetching water from the well platform). The bottom of the road soil layer near M1 is very flat and well paved with stone slabs, which should be the ground at that time (indicating that the well platform is multi-paved with stone slabs that are anti-slip and resistant to stepping)"[17]. If the "great tomb" is a well and not a tomb, none of the previous discussions based on tombs can be established. Therefore, the nature of Palace Ii needs to be reconsidered in the light of other relics.
Mr. Du Jinpeng believes that the base site of the No. 2 Palace "from the Fact that in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties there was a ceremony of burning in the Zongmiao Temple, we can speculate that if the Erlitou No. 2 Palace is indeed a Zongmiao building, then the 'burning pit' in its courtyard may be related to the burning sacrifice" [18]. In addition to the base sites of the First and Second Palaces, in recent years, a series of buildings have been discovered between the base sites of the First and Second Palaces, and from the perspective of the Zuo Zu And Right Society, it is more certain that the base site of the Second Palace is a temple building. The kitchen located on the inner side of the east wall of the second palace building should be the divine kitchen. The well behind the second palace is more than 10 meters deep, and there is an additional north corridor nearby, which should be a well with a refrigeration function, and the additional north corridor next to it should be the place of the temple, that is, the slaughter pavilion in the descendant sacrifice building.
(2) Yanshi Mall
Miyagi Castle in Yanshi Mall is located in the center of the southern part of the castle site, and more than ten building sites have been found in Miyagi Castle. The building base site is divided into three columns, the east column has the fifth, sixth, fourth and other front and back building base sites, and the west column has the third, seventh, second (9), tenth and eighth building base sites arranged before and after. "According to the stratigraphic relationship, the palace buildings and their walls in Miyagi Castle can be divided into at least three stages of remains. The remains of the first phase include the early palace walls and the palace buildings No. 1, No. 7, No. 9 and No. 10, which are the earliest known architectural remains in the palace area. One is an outbuilding extended eastward by No. 9, and No. 10 is an early sleeping hall building. The times are about the first phase of the Yanshi Mall Business Culture. ...... In the second stage, the main hall of The Ninth Palace was remodeled and transformed into the main hall part of the Second Palace, and the late palace wall was built to accommodate the newly expanded annexes on the west and southwest sides of the main hall, and the First Palace continued to be used, thus forming the Second Palace Complex consisting of the main hall, the western and eastern annexes. On the north side of the main hall of the second palace, the eighth palace was also built.
The middle column is the base site of Building No. 1, which is a separate courtyard, judging from the building complex with a gate to the west side of the building, which should be an ancillary facility of the west side of the complex. The base plan of building No. 1 is rectangular, and no obvious main hall is found, with an east-west length of about 42 meters and a north-south width of about 26.5 meters. In the middle is a rectangular courtyard. In the east of the courtyard there is a crypt consisting of two parts, the upper part is square, the outer edge of the mouth is paved with stones, the bottom of the pit is inclined inward and paved with stones, 4.7 meters deep; the lower plane is rectangular, with a mortuary on the four walls, 5.1 meters deep. The cellar is elaborately made, with the upper pit bottom and the lower pit mouth being rammed and then paved with stones, and the lower pit bottom being rammed. A well was found outside the rammed earth wall on the north side of the north side of the no. 1 building site. From the perspective of location, structure, era, etc., the seventh and second (ninth) buildings of Yanshi Mall should be a group of combined buildings facing forward and backward, building Seven is the former dynasty, and Building Two (ninth) is the sleeping palace. Yang Hongxun, Du Jinpeng, and Gu Fei all believed that the base site of Building No. 1 was the "East Kitchen" of Building No. 9. Judging from its structure and layout, this is a high-specification kitchen, with a kitchen, and a well-made cellar pit and well supporting the kitchen (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Floor plan of the location of Miyagi and The East Kitchen of Yanshi Mall
(3) Huanbei Mall
Huanbei Shangcheng Miyagi is located in the south-central part of the city site, and has excavated the foundation sites of Building No. 1 and No. 2, which are 29 meters apart from north to south. Building 1 is located in the south and Building 2 is located in the north.
The base site of building No. 2 is a closed courtyard structure, the plane is in a zigzag shape, and the south, east and west sides are corridor buildings. The entire base site is 92 meters wide from east to west, with a north-south span of 68.5 meters and a total area of 5992 square meters. The north of the base site is the main hall, the main hall is 43.5 meters long from east to west, and 13.8 meters deep from north to south, which are three connected rooms, and there are steps in front. The main hall is flanked by ear temples, as well as the west, east, south and doorways.
On the outside of the southeast corner of the east building of the second building site, an outbuilding was found, with a 13-meter between the north and south walls, and the western wall used the east wall of the second building base. Except for the rammed earth wall found in the building here, there are basically no collapsed red-burnt earth remnants of the wall. A well (2008HBSCF2J1) was found in the north of the building, 1.35 metres west of the east of the second building site and 0.8 metres from the north wall of the above-mentioned building. The mouth of the well is nearly circular, the mouth is large and the bottom is small, the oblique wall, the diameter of the mouth is 3 meters, and the depth is 8.5 meters. It contains skeletons of turtles, domestic pigs, sheep, cattle, mussels, and unknown mammals.[22]
Depending on the location and the well inside it, this outbuilding should be the kitchen at the base site of Building No. 2, and J1 should be the well with refrigeration function supporting the kitchen.
Figure 4 Floor plan of the base site and the location of the East Kitchen of Huanbei Mall
The discovery of the foundation sites of Building No. 1 and No. 2 in Huanbei Shangcheng Palace has led to discussions in the academic circles about the nature of these two larger building sites, such as the nature of the No. 1 building base sites such as the Zongmiao Temple[23] and the military camp [24]. Tang Jigen agreed with Mr. Du Jinpeng's view that the No. 1 palace building Zongmiao said, "Perhaps the palace used for administration in the Shang Dynasty and the zongmiao temple used for ancestor worship are one. No large-scale sacrifices were seen (at least not yet) at Base 2, and wells were found in the annex buildings southeast of Base 2, indicating that Base 2 was related to royal life".[25] We agree with the view that the Jongmyo Offila of Building No. 1 and the foundation site of Building No. 2 are related to royal life, and on this basis, we judge that if there is a kitchen in the east of building No. 1, it should be a divine kitchen; the annex of building no. 2 in the southeast of Dongyu should be a kitchen attached to the base site of Building No. 2, and there is a well with refrigeration function supporting the cooking kitchen in the courtyard.
(4) Yin Xu Xiaotun Palace Zongmiao District
Since the 1920s and 1930s, a total of four foundation sites have been excavated in the Zongmiao area of the Xiaotun Palace. From 2004 to 2005, the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences once again conducted drilling and test excavations in the gongzongmiao area. The A-1 base site was originally a small rammed-earth foundation site with a length of north and south, and it can be seen through drilling that it is an east-west long building base site, with an east-west length of about 11 meters, and the overall layout is distributed in parallel with the north-south of the A-2 base site in the south. Between the A-1 base site and the A-5 base site, there is also a small rammed-earth foundation site with an area of about 10 square meters, and the overall plan is slightly curved, and a rammed earth foundation site of about 12 meters long from north to south was found on the north side of the A-2 base site, which is distributed in parallel with the west side of the A-4 base site.[26] From the perspective of spatial layout, these sites form a courtyard building, and the 87H1[27] excavated in 1987 and the 4:H16 excavated in the 1930s are located in the courtyard of the courtyard building, and 4:H16 is inferred to be a well based on shape, structure and depth.[28] If the base site of Group A is the sleeping hall, this courtyard building should be the kitchen attached to the sleeping hall building, H1 excavated a large number of animal bones, which should be a cellar pit dedicated to storing meat and food; 4:H16 is located in the cooking kitchen base site, which should be a special well for the cooking kitchen of the Shang Royal Family (Figure 5).
Figure 5 Floor plan of the location of the east kitchen of the base site of Group A in the Palace Temple Area of Xiaotun Palace in Yin Ruins
There are many studies on the architectural site of the Temple District of the Yin Ruins Palace, and many of them are studied on their nature, and Mr. Du Jinpeng has summarized the views of each family in detail[29]. The more consistent view is that the northernmost base site of Group A is the sleeping palace; the base site of Group B on the south side of Group A is the Zongmiao Temple; the base site of Group C on the southwest side is the Society, and the base site of the Group D is the Zongmiao Temple built by Wu Ding for his father Xiao B. The base sites of Group B and Group C are not too far apart, due to the serious damage, and although the base site of Group B and 20 is a courtyard complex, most of them have not yet been excavated, and the layout relationship between them and the base sites of Group C and Group D is not very clear, whether each has its own divine kitchen, it is impossible to judge from the data that has been excavated so far. The base site of the Group A belonging to the sleeping hall, the kitchen attached to it should undoubtedly be a living kitchen for the life of the royal harem.
(5) Yin Ruins Grand Sikong Complex
In 2004, excavations at the Site of Dasikong in Anyang Yin Ruins found a wealth of relics and relics, including 53 Shang Dynasty housing sites, the most notable of which was the multi-row courtyard-style large-scale building complex in Area C. The complex is more than 70 meters long from north to south, nearly 40 meters wide from east to west, and has a total area of more than 2,800 square meters. There are 14 housing foundations in the complex, except for 2 that are older than others, and the other 12 sites are a group of buildings. These 12 housing sites are divided into two courtyards, the east courtyard has a total of 8 housing sites, and there are six rows of east-west buildings in front and behind, forming a front, middle and rear courtyard, and there are box rooms on the east and west sides. The west courtyard has 4 housing sites, 2 in the east-west and north-south directions, forming a front and rear courtyard. Drainage facilities were found in the site of this formation, and the drainage facilities in the front yard discharged the water out of the hospital through the pipes set up in the foundation of the east wing, and the drainage facilities in the backyard discharged the water through the drainage pipes in the middle of the west courtyard. This group of buildings is compact in layout and well-designed. F23 runs through the east and west courtyards, and there are other ways between the two courtyards [30] (Figure 6; Figure 7).
In fact, the foundation site excavated by Dasikong in 2004 was not fully exposed, and the complete building complex should be three courtyards in the east, middle and west. The front and rear courtyards of the west courtyard are basically excavated except for the excavation area extending from the northwest; there are six rows of rammed earth buildings in front of and behind the middle courtyard with F22 as the core building. There is also an east courtyard on its east side.
In 2017, infrastructure excavations were carried out at the location of the East Courtyard, and several Rammed earth buildings of the Shang Dynasty were cleaned up, of which F7 was a north-south rectangle, with a length of 31.5 meters from north to south and a width of not less than 14.3 meters from east to west. Two columns of north-south pillars were found on the site, a total of 37, most of which had foundation stones. Three sets of drainage pipes are buried in the rammed soil of the site, all high in the west and low in the east, draining the water into the ditch on the east side of the road. It is worth noting that the western end of the drainage pipe is in the house, and most of it is connected to the reservoir in the foundation. Such drainage facilities shall be the supporting drainage facilities of these houses. Excavators believe that this is the "East Kitchen" of the building base site group in Area C excavated in 2004.
Figure 6 Floor plan of the building complex in Area C of the Great Sikong Ruins of Yin Ruins
Figure 7 Building Complex in Area C of the Great Sikong Ruins of Yin Ruins (from south to north)
The Great Sikong Area C complex covers a large area, and the middle courtyard and the west courtyard were excavated in 2004, and the building complex excavated in 2017 should be the east courtyard of the C area complex. The F22 in the middle courtyard is the most important high platform building, 17.5 meters long from east to west, 7 meters wide from north to south, wider than other base sites in the same group, originally supposed to be built on a higher rammed earth platform foundation, with corridors in front and back. Of particular importance are the patterns of snail shells arranged in the shapes of eagles, birds and animal heads, as well as bones, armor and 83 cm tall super-large urns found on the north and south slopes of the site. Scholars speculate that F22 should be the ancestral temple in this group of buildings. F23 runs through the east and west courtyards, which should be the hall of this group of buildings. There are also many pottery for daily life unearthed on the site of the building. This should be the residence of a group of clan chiefs with temples, halls, and beds, and the east courtyard should be a kitchen that serves the chief's family members.
(6) Zhou Yuanfeng's chicks formed a foundation site
In 1976, the Shaanxi Provincial Cultural Management Commission and others found a large palace building site (or "Fengchi Group A base site") in Fengyan Village, Qishan County, Shaanxi Province. The Base Site of Group A is located on a rectangular rammed earth platform with a length of 45.2 meters from north to south, 32.5 meters wide from east to west, and a height of 1.3 meters, with a total area of 1500 square meters. This is a fully enclosed complex with two courtyards in front and back, symmetrical in the east and west, sitting north and facing south, composed of door screens, door schools, front halls, back bedrooms and east and west wing rooms, the shape system is to take the doorway, front hall, back room as the central axis, and there are box rooms on the east and west sides, connected by a cloister. The doorway is in the middle of the south, 3 meters wide and 6 meters deep, with east and west gates on both sides, and a rammed earth shadow wall outside the door. The front hall is the main building of the base site, 17.2 meters long from east to west, 6.1 meters deep from north to south, with seven rows of column bases in the east-west direction, with a spacing of 3 meters; there are four rows of column bases in the north-south direction, with a spacing of 2 meters. In front of the hall is the middle courtyard, and there are three slope-like steps on the north side. The back room is in the north of the base site, with five rooms arranged from east to west, 23 meters long from east to west, 3.1 meters deep from north to south, and there is a corridor connection between the back room and the front hall. There are symmetrical boxes on both sides of the base site, arranged in the north and south, and eight in the east and west. Drainage facilities made of ceramic water pipes or cobblestones were found under the foundation of the East Gate and under the middle of the corridor.
There are eight rooms in the East Wing, which are well preserved. The second room from the north is a triad land surface, and in the south of the interior there is a particularly hard and compacted sand ground of 1.4 long, 0.5 wide and 0.15 meters thick. On the north side of this ground there is a fire pit 0.7 long, 0.6 wide and 0.4 meters deep, and the four walls are roasted red by fire. The gate is located in the south of the western wall. From the north, in the southwest corner of the sixth room, there is a rectangular fire pit that is 0.92 long, 0.52 wide, and 0.5 meters deep, and the bottom and four walls are roasted red and artificial. "Feng's East Wing may be the kitchen",[34] and Yang Hongxun believes that the sixth room is also the East Kitchen. It was the only kitchen during this period where a pit was found, and the only one with two kitchens on the same building site (Fig. 8).
Figure 8 Floor plan of the foundation site and the location of the East Kitchen
The base site of the Fengyan Jia Group is a well-laid and basically complete preservation of the building base site, which has unearthed a relatively large number of carved oracle bones from the Western Zhou Dynasty. The discussion of its nature has begun since its discovery, and the main views are the zongmiao theory and the residence site theory. "If compared with the Erlitou Palace, the total area of the entire rammed earth platform of the Fengchi is less than a quarter of the latter, and the area of the hall is only slightly stronger than half of it; and the age of the Fengchi foundation is about a thousand years later, even as the palace of the King of Zhou, it is still too small." [36] Mr. Du Jinpeng believes that the Fengchiao architectural system mostly inherits the characteristics of the Shang Dynasty palace architecture in Henan, Hubei and other places, but is inconsistent with the Western Zhou architecture such as Zhouyuan Yuntang, Qi Zhen, and Zhao Chen, thus showing the particularity of Fengchi architecture in the middle of Zhouyuan zhongzhong architecture.[37] Mr. Xu Lianggao agreed with Mr. Du's point of view and believed that "if this theory is true, then the owner of the Fengyan complex is closely related to the Shang culture." It may have come from the Shang, a descendant of the Shang nobles living in Zhou Yuan. They served in the court of the Zhou dynasty, just like the Shi Wei family, from merchants to Zhou, and may even hold important positions such as royal historians".[38]
The author agrees with mr. Du and Mr. Xu. The Fengchia Group A building complex is a complete set of front hall and back room residence, the east wing has two kitchens, corresponding to the front hall and the sleeping hall; the kitchen with the sleeping hall in a unit group should be used by the daily life of family members; the kitchen corresponding to the front hall should be related to the function of the front hall, mainly for the front hall to entertain guests, or use during sacrifices, and may have the function of "god kitchen".
(7) Zhouyuan Fengyan No. 3 building site
In the autumn of 2014, the Shaanxi Provincial Archaeological Research Institute and other units excavated the site of Zhouyuan in Shaanxi Province, and the Fengyan No. 3 base site was a more important discovery. The main part of the third base site is shaped in the shape of a "hui" glyph, with rammed earth platforms on all sides, rectangular courtyards in the middle, and a section protruding from the east in the north-east. The third base site is composed of the main platform base on the north side, the platform base on the east and west sides, the south gate foundation, and the courtyard. The main part of the base site is 48 meters long in the east and south, 46 meters in the west, 56 meters wide in the north from east to west, and 58.5 meters wide from east to west in the south. The total area of the base site, including the protrusion, is 2,810 square meters, which is the largest western Zhou period architectural site excavated so far. A special standing stone and paving remains have been found in the courtyard of the base site. Among the excavated relics are gold leaf, turquoise, original porcelain and other high-grade relics. At the junction of the main platform base and the east side of the platform base, there is an eastward projection, which is 10.55 meters wide from east to west, 8.05 meters long from north to south, and 0.26 to 0.4 meters in residual height. To the northeast of the protrusion, a large three-legged urn buried in situ was found, and a special ridge remain was found.
8.5 meters east of the base on the east side there is a rammed earth foundation site F4, which is a separate courtyard with a length of at least 21 meters from north to south and an area of 172 square meters. The ground in the courtyard was flat, turned red and black by fire, and was excavated covered with large pieces of red burnt earth and construction waste such as charcoal ash. [39] A staircase (MJ2) to the south of the base, 33 metres from the northeast corner, leads to the courtyard of Building 3. F4 should be F3's kitchen (Figure IX).
Figure 9 Floor plan of the foundation site and the location of the East Kitchen of Fengyan No.3 Building
After the excavation of the foundation site of Fengyan No. 3 building, it has attracted widespread attention from the academic community. Some scholars believe that it is a social palace with a state form in the Western Zhou Dynasty, with the standing stones in the courtyard as the owner and the paved stone ruins as the altar, and further proposed that "the 'official' associated with the society of the Phoenix Chicks can only be the Western Zhou state represented by the royal family, and the people who worship it should include all the people in the 'Zhou' land" [40]. Some scholars believe that the base sites of Fengyan A and B groups and the base sites of Fengyan No. 3 and No. 4 are a group of multi-ceremonial buildings, of which the base site of Group A is the Zongmiao of the Zhou Royal Family, and the orientation, shape, relics and relics of Fengyan No. 3 base site are consistent with the ancient texts and documentary records of Tianwei, Tianmu and Circular Hill, which proves that the base site of Fengyan No. 3 should be named Tianwei Relic. Its main function is to worship the heavens in the suburbs.[41] Some scholars believe that "the relics of the shrine of the Fengyan No. 3 building courtyard may not have been erected by the Zhou people, but should have been established by the shang remnants who moved to the Zhouyuan area with the permission of the Zhou Dynasty" [42]. Some scholars believe that the area of the Fengyan No.3 complex is the Yin Relic Minshe Society represented by the Weishi family.[43] Some scholars believe that the designer of the Fengyan complex was a merchant, and the identity of the user was the King of Zhou or his agent in Zhou yuan. Although the academic understanding is different, they all agree that the base site of Fengyan No. 3 is related to sacrifice. F4 attached to the site of Fengyan No. 3 should be the sacred kitchen that serves the sacrificial building, and the protrusion on its northwest side should be the koku, and the sacrificial animals used for sacrifice are processed and formed in the shrine kitchen after being slaughtered.
(8) Others
At present, the excavated ruins of palace buildings in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties include Zhengzhou Shangcheng, Hubei Huangpi Panlongcheng, Jiaozuofu City, Yuanqu Shangcheng, Dongxia Feng Shangcheng, xiaoshuangqiao Shangcheng, etc. [45]. Zhengzhou Shangcheng was found earlier, and there was a lot of excavation work, and it can be seen from the excavation that the palace area is located in the northeast of the city site. There are dozens of rammed earth foundation sites of palace buildings excavated in Miyagi Castle, but due to the geographical location and serious damage, most of the excavations are single buildings and have been damaged, although there are also courtyard-style building combinations, the way of sleeping at that time is still clear, and the location of the kitchen cannot be determined. However, it can be found from scholars' research on wells, "Judging from the first type of wells found so far, they are located in the northeast or east of Zhengzhou Shangcheng, and there is still a very close relationship with the rammed earth palace building site." It is particularly coincidental that these three wells are distributed on a north-south line within the eastern wall of Zhengzhou Shangcheng, and the distance from the eastern wall of Shangcheng is about 100 meters, and the formation of this phenomenon is not an accidental coincidence, but should have a certain significance." [46] These wells are well-made and well-laid, located near the east wall of the palace area, and from the location to the production, it is easy to think of the life and kitchen in the royal palace area of the Shang Dynasty.
Only three north-south parallel building sites remain in the Huangpi Panlongcheng Palace,[47] and their architectural structure is the same as that of the recently excavated Erlitou Site No. 3 and No. 5 Palaces. Due to the unclear structure of the site, it is not known whether the kitchen exists alone or where the kitchen is located. Other malls are either poorly preserved or excavated, and it is not possible to know whether there is a separate kitchen or to accurately determine the location of the kitchen.
As can be seen from the above information, there are separate kitchens and regulations only in Miyagi Castle and large building complexes. From the location point of view, these large buildings are sitting north facing south, and the kitchens are located in the east of the building base site, but the specific location is slightly different. The kitchens of the two building sites of the Erlitou site are located on the inner side of the middle of the east corridor of the base site courtyard, and the wells of the two base sites are located at the rear of the main building in the courtyard. The kitchen of the Zhouyuan Group A base site is also located on the inside of the east corridor of the courtyard, but the Zhouyuan Group A base site has a kitchen in each of the two courtyards in front and behind. Judging from the relatively clear layout of Yanshi Mall, Huanbei Mall No. 2 base site and Zhouyuan Fengyan No. 3 building base site, as well as the Yin Xu Palace Zongmiao District Group A base site where the layout is not very clear, the kitchen is located on the southeast side of the courtyard outside the building site, which is an independent courtyard, and most of the courtyards have wells or cellar pits. The kitchen of the foundation site of the Grand Sikong Building is also a separate courtyard located on the east side of the building site, and there are also special drainage facilities in it.
Judging from the ordinary residential sites of the Shang Dynasty and the Western Zhou Dynasty found in Yanshi Erlitou[48], Yin Ruins [49], and Zhangjiapo Ruins[50], most of the sites that have not been stolen and excavated have found stoves for cooking, and no independent kitchen sites have been found.
In summary, the residences of ordinary people in the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou dynasties should not have special kitchens, or did not form strict regulations. In the large palace complex of the royal family and high-ranking nobles, independent kitchen areas have been formed, and they are located on the east or southeast side of the main building in the complex, or in the east (box), or on the east side (southeast) to form an independent kitchen courtyard, and there are supporting wells or cellars in the courtyard, forming a relatively stable "east kitchen system". According to the nature of the attached main building, the kitchen can be divided into an eastern kitchen related to daily life and a sacred kitchen related to sacrifice. The living kitchen is the cooking kitchen for the daily life of the owner of the main building, and the divine kitchen is mainly a place for disposing of and placing sacrificial supplies.
Second, the classification and name of the remains of kitchen buildings
Among the building sites in the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties, one type is the No. 5 building base site of the Erlitou Site and the row house building of the Panlong City Site, and no stove has been found in the rooms of such base sites so far, and no kitchen remains have been found nearby. The other type is courtyard-style buildings or courtyard-style buildings, such as the base site of the No. 1 and No. 2 palaces of the Erlitou Site, the Xilie Building Complex of Yanshi Shangcheng, the No. 2 Palace Building Site of Huanbei Shangcheng, the Base Site of Group A of the Zongmiao District of YinXu Palace, the Base Site of an Anyang Dasikong Building Group, the Base Site of Fengchia Group A and the No. 3 Building Site of Zhouyuan Fengyan. The main houses of this type of building are all facing north and south, and some have a type of building, a gatehouse and a courtyard, and some have a number of front and back courtyards. No stoves are found in the main house of this type of building, but another courtyard is built on the east side or corridor, or on the outside of the southeast of the courtyard as a kitchen, and there are many facilities attached to the kitchen such as wells or cellar pits and related to daily cooking.
In the palace buildings and large group buildings of the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, the kitchen should be a building attached to the palace, and the nature of the main building attached to it determines its nature and title. Judging from the existing buildings with kitchens in the Ming and Qing dynasties, there are kitchens in palace buildings and sacrificial buildings, and the nature and use of the two are not the same, and the names are different. The kitchens in the palace buildings are called the East Room, the East Kitchen, the Kitchen and the Kitchen, and the Kitchen associated with the sacrificial building is called the Divine Kitchen.
This custom of setting the kitchen on the southeast side may have become a system of the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, which this article temporarily calls the "Eastern Kitchen System". In fact, this custom or system, since the Xia Dynasty to the Ming and Qing Dynasties in the palace complex, the kitchen is located on the east side. Even the kitchens of most of the rural areas in north China today are still located in the east wing of the courtyard. The East Kitchen system has a long history and a long history.
The names of kitchen sites are also quite complicated. At present, the kitchen facilities in the large-scale building base site groups seen in the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou dynasties are located on the east or southeast side of the main building, so it is often called "East Room". The East Room, as the name suggests, is the house located on the east side of the main room. The "Interpretation of the Name" says: "The room, the side also, the two sides of the room also." The east room is also called the left room, and the west room is also called the right room." The "left room" and "right room" mentioned here refer to the building facing north and south, the left side is the east, and the right side is the west, so it is called "left room" and "right room". The "Ritual Ceremony of Special Sacrifice and Feeding" records: "Set up a wash in the southeast of the yi steps, the pot is forbidden in the western order, and the beans, baskets, and 铏 are in the east room." Beans and baskets are used in ancient times to serve spices or fruits during sacrifices and feasts. The Zhou Li Tianguan Hengren records: "Sacrifice, a total of large soups, and soups." The same goes for guests." Jia Gongyanshu: "The cloud 'gong soup' is all accompanied by ding," the cattle are swollen, the cattle are bitter, the sheep are bitter, the pigs are mixed with the five flavors, and the soup is served in the ware, that is, the so-called "soup" 铏, the vegetable meat soup, and the genus of ding. From this point of view, beans, flutes and chosnium are all containers used in the "East Room", which is obviously the kitchen.
The Modern Chinese Dictionary interprets "kitchen" as "the house where meals are cooked". Before there was a dedicated kitchen, the cooking place also had different places and names. "Jia Gongyan's Shu Yun: '爨, stove also, zhou metric ceremony time is called 爨, to Confucius time is called stove'. If Jia's words are credible, they are a former figure of the stove. If you prove it from ancient books, there are no stove characters in the books of the Book of Poetry, the Rites of Rites, the Zhou Li, and the Zhou Yi. The word 爨 is common, and there are people who do not use verbs but as nouns. It is Jia's words that should be credible. For this reason, we think not only of the precursor of the stove, but also of a dialect that precedes the stove" [52]. After the special area, the place where meals are cooked is called the East Room, and in later generations, there are names such as Cu Room, Kitchen Kitchen, East Kitchen, Kitchen, kitchen, etc., of which "Kitchen" is the most commonly used. The "Da Ku" mentioned in "No Surprise, No Profit" [53] and "The Great Master Does Not Shoot, the Great Master Does Not Bean" [54] generally refers to the Emperor's cook. The division of labor between "庖" and "廚" is different, the main ingredients of "庖" are initially processed and slaughtered by livestock and poultry; the main "Cooking" and "Dumplings" of "廚" are the main functions of transforming ingredients into delicacies. The name "East Kitchen" is commonly used in later poems. Cao Zhi's "When the Coming Day is a Great Difficulty" says: "The days are short, and there is more than enough happiness, but it is to put the jade bottle to run the East Kitchen"; Tang Guqing's "Guiyang Xiao Temple Has Ding Xingers Who Can Cultivate No Life, Bear Water Shi Monks, Return to the First Poem", said: "Xiao Temple's Hundred Monks, the East Kitchen is raising smoke"; Song Luyou's "Sending Zhang Shuqian to Compile and Repair the Dynasty": "The East Kitchen sheep is full of beautiful conversation, and the bells in the north are rare and sorrowful.".
3. The source flow situation and other information support it
According to the existing archaeological data, the earliest remains of fire use in China were found at the Zhoukoudian Beijing Ape Man Site about 700,000 years ago. After entering the agrarian civilization, human beings began a relatively stable sedentary life, with a fixed residence, and moved the cooking and heating fires to the living room. To this day, in some areas, this kind of fire is still used in the living room, either for cooking or for heating.
The earliest known pottery stove was excavated from the Neolithic site of Hemudu,[55] and has since been found throughout the country. Most of the semi-crypt sites and ground-type buildings found by archaeologists have stoves, mostly in the middle of the houses. "The center of the fire suggests that the initial dwelling may have been to eat around the stove during the day and lie down around the stove at night".[56] There are different food customs in different places, and some sites also have different stoves according to their different food customs. For example, in addition to the fire pit found on the ground in the middle of the room, the site of the Lajia family in Qinghai And County has also found a wall oven in many of the sites.[57]
Things have their origins, and the same is true for the construction and use of palace buildings, and ancient Chinese palace architecture should have originated from the "big house" of the Neolithic era. This kind of large house was originally the public space of the settlement, and later with the emergence of private property, the rich and the poor were divided, and the large house was occupied by the privileged class in the settlement, and its nature also changed from public space to private space. Living from the beginning of the partition of the living room is closely related to the privacy of the living function. In terms of the concept of living space in traditional Chinese culture, "inside" or "back" is a relatively private space, so "inside" and "back" are generally where you live. Large houses have been found in the Banpo Ruins of Shaanxi Province[58], the Site of Baishui Xiahe [59], the Ruins of Lushan Valley in Yan'an City[60] and the Ruins of Dadiwan in Gansu Province, where the "back" of the big house should be the living space and the "front" should be the usual activity space. Dadiwan F901 is centered on the rectangular main room, with the same symmetrical side rooms on both sides as the main room; there is a separate rear room behind the main room, and there are outbuildings in front, which is a well-laid, complex structure, and clear primary and secondary architectural group. [61] The stove underwent several constructions, located in the middle of the main chamber, surrounded by a circle of mud, a hard reddish-brown burnt earth, and the bottom outer diameter was 2.51 meters long from north to south and 2.67 meters from east to west. F901 is a 420-square-meter, well-preserved multi-room complex, which is not only the largest and most complex site of the Dadiwan ruins, but also the largest building ever seen in mainland Neolithic archaeological discoveries. The "big house" F1 of the Banpo site is a semi-crypt site, the foundation of the house is shallower underground, and the remaining parts are 10.8 meters long from north to south and 10.5 meters wide from east to west. According to Yang Hongxun's research, this is the earliest chamber building ever found in the Guanzhong area. It enters a large space with a double fire pit in the center and three small spaces in the rear, which begins to have a three-room layout - the front is the conference hall and auditorium, and the rear is the bedroom. This should be the germ of the "front-facing-back" palace architecture.
During this period, although the "big house" has been divided into different spaces, the stove is located in the interior, most of which is located in the outer room, and some are located in the inner room, such as the stove of Lushan Mountain F4 in Yan'an City, Shaanxi Province, which is located in the inner room. In the north with cold winter, the stove located indoors, especially the outer room, should have the dual functions of cooking and heating, and the stove in the inner living room is mostly used for heating.
The ruins of the Temple of Tao were found in the northern part of the site with a palace area. In 2010, the Shanxi team of the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences excavated four identical kilns in the palace area, all built on the steep ridges of raw soil on the north side of the operation pit. The rammed earth foundation site behind the kiln group is likely to be the "kitchen". Mr. He believed that this was "a palace kitchen complex, most characteristic of the barbecue grill". "Since the 'kitchen' and its kiln group in the Tao Temple palace area are located on the east side of the core building IFJT3, it is likely that the palace system of 'East Kitchen' in the palace during the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties was formed." [65]
Since the tao temple, especially in the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, the remains of the kitchen type are generally separated from the large palace complexes, and a special kitchen area is set up on the east or southeast side of the palace building, gradually forming an "eastern kitchen system" with the concept of etiquette. There may be many reasons to set up a separate area for the kitchen, but the main one should be related to the special function of the kitchen. The Mencius Liang Hui Wang Shang records that "a gentleman is to an animal or a beast, and when he sees his life, he cannot bear to see his death; he hears his voice and does not tolerate eating his flesh." It is a gentleman's far away kitchen also" [66]. Therefore, the placement of the kitchen outside the main building of the palace may be a true portrayal of the "gentleman's far kitchen". As for why it is placed in the east or southeast, it is a question that needs to be continued to be explored.
During the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the authority of the Zhou royal family declined, and there were many countries, and almost all the capitals of the countries in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty were found, and most of them were archaeologically investigated, explored or excavated, and the general layout of the city site was relatively clear. However, the excavation of Miyagi Castle, including the Eastern Zhou Dynasty Castle, is still not systematic enough, and only the sporadic discovery of tall rammed earth buildings, bricks, exquisite building materials, roads, exquisite water supply and drainage facilities, and luxurious refrigerated cellars can be seen in that year, and its specific layout is not clear.[68] As for the kitchen situation in Miyagi Castle, there is currently not enough information to conduct systematic research.
In the imperial palace buildings of the Qin and Han dynasties after the Qin and Han Dynasties, there were independent dining room areas, which were limited to space and would not be repeated. The following is only the best preserved palace complex in the Ming and Qing dynasties and the dining room setting in the sacrificial ceremonial buildings to support this.
The Forbidden City of the Ming and Qing dynasties should be the best preserved imperial palace complex at present. "There are many dining rooms in the Qing Palace, including the inner dining room on the south side of the Yangxin Hall, and the outer dining room outside the Jingyun Gate. The Shoukang Palace, where the empress dowager lived, had its own dining room in the east and west six palaces where the empress dowager lived. The Chonghua Palace, where the Qianlong Emperor often came to the throne, also had its own dining room. There is also a dining room that serves the diet of the crown prince. Among them, the inner dining room on the south side of the Yangxin Hall is called the Imperial Dining Room".[69] From the perspective of spatial layout, these large and small Qing Palace dining rooms are mostly located in the east or east of each attached palace, and still follow the regulations of the "East Kitchen".
The Taimiao Temple and the Sheji Altar in the Ming and Qing dynasties are typical representatives of the royal ceremonial architecture of the Left Ancestor and Right Society. The Taimiao Temple on the left is the home temple where the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties sacrificed their ancestors; the altar on the right is the place where the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties sacrificed the shrine. Both altars contain a shrine, a shrine, a slaughterhouse, and a well, both located on the northeast side of the sacrificial building. Originally built in the eighteenth year of Ming Yongle (1420), the Temple of Heaven was a place for the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties to sacrifice the emperor and pray for the abundance of grain, which has a circular hill altar and a prayer valley altar, the circular hill altar is in the south, the prayer valley altar is in the north, and the two altars are on a north-south axis, separated by a wall in the middle. The two altars each have their own divine kitchen and auxiliary shrine and slaughter pavilion, the altar of circular hill is located on the northeast side of the outer gate of the east gate, and the altar of prayer valley is located on the northeast side of the east gate of the inner temple. The Temple of Earth, the Temple of the Sun, and the Temple of the Moon were places where the Sun, Moon, and Stars were sacrificed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and divine kitchens and ancillary facilities were also found. Judging from the distribution of the divine kitchens in various worship places in the Ming and Qing dynasties, the overall still follows the regulation of "east kitchen", but it is not very strict, such as the temple of heaven praying valley altar when it was first built, only the northeast side of the god kitchen, and later the west side courtyard wall was demolished to add the west side of the god kitchen, forming two god kitchens in the east and west, and the west side of the god kitchen all highlighted the architectural layout outside the courtyard wall [70]. The altar of earth and the temple of the moon are no longer on the east side of the place of worship.
The formation of the Eastern Kitchen system has gone through thousands of years of history, along with the continuous improvement of the degree of social civilization, the emergence of the country, the gradual maturity, the formation and continuous development of the social etiquette system and the gradual formation and improvement, is also an important part of the ancient Chinese etiquette system.
exegesis
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[1] Shang Zhou Group, Department of Archaeology, Department of History, Peking University: Shang Zhou Archaeology, p. 184, Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1979.
[2] Yang Hongxun, "Preliminary Investigation of the Architectural Sites of Qiyi in Western Zhou", Cultural Relics, No. 3, 1981.
[3] Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: Yanshi Erlitou: Archaeological Excavation Reports from 1959 to 1978, Encyclopedia of China Press, 1999. The information used in this article on the No. 1 Palace of the Yanshi Erlitou Site is from this report, and there are no comments.
[4] Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Yanshi Erlitou: Archaeological Excavation Reports from 1959 to 1978, p. 143, Encyclopedia of China Press, 1999. The information used in this article on the Second Palace of yanshi Erlitou site is from this report, and there are no comments.
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[6] Du Jinpeng, "A Preliminary Study on the Palace Building Site at the Erlitou Ruins", in Archaeological Journal (Vol. 16), p. 188, Science Press, 2006.
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[8] Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Erlitou (1999-2006), p. 614, Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2014.
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(Author: Miao Xia Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences; originally published in Southern Cultural Relics, No. 5, 2021)
Editor-in-charge: Han Han
Reprinted from: Chinese Archaeological Network, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences