In 331 BC, armies from half-civilized worlds converged on the Gaugamela Plain in the northern part of the Two Rivers Valley. Not only would they fight separately for the armies of Alexander and Darius III, but they would also put an end to Persia, the world's number one power, here. But more importantly, victory or defeat itself will change the pattern of world civilization forever.
<h1 class="ql-align-justify" > unstoppable new empire</h1>
Alexander's arrival changed much of Asia's history
Beginning in 334 BC, Alexander led his allied Macedonian-Greek army to Asia, embarking on an unprecedented expedition. In just two years, control of half of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt was taken from the Persian Empire. Neither the cavalry of the Persian nobility nor the fleets of the Greeks and Phoenicians could stop the Macedonian conquerors. So much so that large native cities like Damascus, Jerusalem, and Memphis all declared their surrenders upon the arrival of the opposing vanguard.
The Macedonians, who were at the heart of the conquest, were effectively leading a national alliance of members of pan-Hellenistic culture. In addition to the headquarters of the Kingdom of Macedonia, it also included the northern Greek regions that depended on them and a large area of the Thracian tribes. Even the Greek city-states, which had repeatedly gathered their troops to resist, chose to compromise in the face of coercion and inducement. Together, they provided Alexander with far more military power than the Macedonian native forces. Help the emperor to be on the front line at the same time, so as not to catch fire in the backyard and lose contact with the mainland. Because they all shared Greek culture with each other, they were relatively united in the face of Persian power.
Kingdom of Macedonia (orange) with his Greek allies (yellow)
In terms of specific matters, Alexander could use his main army to constantly challenge his opponents, but it was impossible to disperse the main force to the occupied area for consumption. Thus, the fleet of the Hellenic Confederation became a key force in macedonian control of the waters of the Aegean Sea. Their various types of hired heavy infantry also became the armed support of the local governor of Macedonia. A large number of traders brought the necessary supplies, while engineers made the siege weapons they needed for the expeditionary forces. As for the cavalry and light infantry from various specific regions, it was also an inevitable choice for Alexander to make up for the shortcomings of the main army.
When the Macedonians expanded their sphere of influence to the west of the entire Euphrates River, they brought in large numbers of Phoenicians, Cypriots, Cirisians, Jews, and Egyptians. By maintaining the original local autonomy and distributing the captured Persian vaults, Alexander had in fact initially established his own "New Persian Empire". But as long as the original Persian central authority remained, his hegemony looked like a temporary military shogunate. Coupled with the fact that the Euphrates River itself was not a good natural barrier, it could not stop the still wealthy Achaemenid dynasty, forcing the Macedonian army to continue eastward.
Alexander, who was worshipped in Egypt
<h1 class="ql-align-justify" > old overlord whose strength still exists</h1>
Darius III was in a repressed position in the face of Macedonia
Beginning in 334 BC, Darius III's Persian Empire was constantly frustrated. Although there is a very mature Wangjia Avenue system, it is still very unrealistic to reliably deliver instant messages. Before the decisions of the Persian kings arrived, the situation had often changed dramatically. New feedback also takes time to reach the central court and make major decisions seem a beat slower than the Macedonians. Even if Darius chose the best strategic position, he could not resist the distance brought about by the vast territory.
Although Persia lost the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, it did not lose the strength to continue its resistance. The treasury, which has been accumulated over two centuries, is unlikely to be incapacitated by the theft of two appropriations. Coupled with the fact that Alexander was dragging his way south along the Mediterranean Sea, he was delayed for a long time by the Phoenicians of Tyre and the Arabs of Gaza, giving the Persian Empire time to continue recruiting troops. Their main base was located in the Assyrian Plain north of the Two Rivers, and they were replenished by river water transport and babylonian agricultural output, and could also transport soldiers by ancient roads to the Medes. As for the empty landscape itself, it is also an ideal place to gather large troops and fight decisive battles.
Darius set up both his base and his battlefield in the Assyrian region north of the Two Rivers
In the specific composition of the troops, Darius used the elite of various places as much as possible to avoid unnecessary trouble caused by the poor quality of the soldiers. Due to previous losses and losses, only more than 2,000 Greek mercenaries remained as elites. But there were still a large number of native infantry and undead armies that had been reloaded with Greek weapons to be dispatched. At the same time, the Armenians and Cappadociaians, who had been governors, continued to reach Persia, providing them with a very effective detachment. This, combined with the withdrawal of noble soldiers from Syria and other places and the belated eastern garrison, was enough to fight again with Alexander's expeditionary force.
Darius even recruited cavalry and war elephants from the Indus Valley, and built and concentrated 200 chariots to exert great power on the plains battlefield. Although its total military strength could not reach the millions of ancient writers, it was not difficult to maintain a 2:1 advantage over the Macedonians.
The Persian Empire still had enough money to recruit a large army
The only question is, in what direction will the Macedonian army march? Historically, a large number of Hellenistic soldiers only crossed the Two Rivers region during the Battle of Kunaksa. The detachment, led by Persian rebels, hoped to take the most convenient southern route to attack Babylon, but encountered difficulties in supplying due to the harsh terrain. Darius also followed the example of Artaxerxes II, burying wells along the way, harvesting grain and destroying orchards without giving the invaders usable supplies.
If Alexander had chosen to attack from the north, he would have had to cross the Tigris River again, and the pace of progress would have been very slow. The defenders, who are waiting for work, can calmly choose the way to deal with it.
Persian noble cavalry training in hunting
<h1 class="ql-align-justify" > go forward</h1>
In 331 BC the Macedonian army crossed the Euphrates River
At the end of the summer of 331 BC, the Macedonian army crossed the Euphrates River and headed in the direction where Darius was. The purpose of Alexander's visit was, of course, the crucial city of Babylon, but he preferred to directly find the main Persian army for a decisive battle. Because from the past record of hand-to-hand combat, Darius was good at strategic planning and not good at commanding in battle. The new Macedonian army was also superior to the persian traditional model. Therefore, nothing can be more once and for all than a decisive battle.
Of course, considering that Darius was able to prepare a force no less than at the Time of Issus, Alexander also expanded his forces through various means. In addition to distributing reinforcements from the mainland to various detachments, he also gathered a large number of Greek allies for frontal combat. At the same time, some newly recruited mercenaries gradually arrived from Europe, which helped him plan a more elaborate tactical layout. Thus, on the eve of the Battle of Gaugamela, the Macedonian Field Army was expanded by about 1/3, including 40,000 Macedonian, Greek and Thrace light and heavy infantry, and 7,000 cavalry of various colors from the above regions.
A large number of Greek allies were the heroes behind the Macedonian Crusades
As the expeditionary force approached the Tigris River, it found that nearly 20,000 Persian troops were monitoring them on the opposite bank. It was the remnants of the western part of the empire led by the Governor of Syria, Mazayas, mainly cavalry from Syria and Cappadocia. Due to the lack of infantry strength, they were practically unable to prevent the Macedonians from crossing the river, otherwise they would have risked repeating the tragedy of the Granicas River. And the speed of Alexander's troops crossing the river far exceeded their imagination. Since most of the main soldiers carried their own weapons and supplies, there was no too complicated burden, and the crossing could be completed simply by inflating the skin bag. Knowing that he could not do anything, Mazayas left the port in time to join the main force at his base on the Assyrian plain.
In the days that followed, the eerie phenomenon of lunar eclipses caused both sides to suspend the act of war. In ancient times, when celestial signs and revelations were valued, lunar eclipses were typical ominous omens. Alexander announced the rest of the army to appease the soldiers, and Darius read the results of the Babylonian sacrifices in horror.
The last governor of Syria of the Persian Empire, Mazayas
From a military point of view, the sudden appearance of a lunar eclipse has given both sides more time to prepare. Darius sent men to constantly level the battlefield of the wasteland called Gaugamera in order to maximize the deployment of troops and facilitate the movement of cavalry and chariots. Alexander was also busy leading elite cavalry to guerrilla warfare, expelling and capturing small Persian reconnaissance forces, and further determining the location of the main Persian army. As an auxiliary force, the allies and reinforcements also built a strong camp after crossing the river, allowing the expeditionary force to have its own "foothold" in an unfamiliar environment. Finally, Alexander did not forget to control a hill that could overlook the future battlefield, and made a detailed assessment of Darius's army.
By the end of September of that year, the Macedonian army continued its advance eastward, pausing on the western side of the Gaugamela Plain after leaving the main camp. Alexander gathered the commanders of all the large and small detachments and announced his plan of deployment for several days. In addition to the conventional deployment of partner cavalry, Guards infantry and spear phalanx regiments, emphasis was placed on strengthening the cover forces on the periphery of the two wings. At the same time, the Allies were placed separately as a second-line reserve to deal with the inevitable enveloping strategy of the Persians. The inspiration for this decision may have come from Xenophon's Persian founder, Cyrus the Great. He used a similar arrangement in his decisive battle with the Lydian Empire. Today, Alexander is going to fight Cyrus's immediate descendants in a similar way.
On the eve of the great war, Alexander personally led an army to defeat several groups of Persian scouts
<h1 class="ql-align-justify" > the last attempt of the Persian kings</h1>
Darius assembled 200 rolling chariots on the battlefield of Gaugamela
After receiving the news that the Macedonian army was pressing forward, Darius, who had been waiting for a long time, also determined his own battle plan. He would use a large number of chariots and war elephants to disrupt the Macedonian positions, and to encircle both flanks of his opponents at the same time with superior cavalry. Finally, with the elite infantry deployed in the front as a guide, the second-line reinforcements were instigated to surround and annihilate the entire Macedonian main force.
To this end, he ordered a huge army to complete the deployment ahead of schedule. Even if the soldier is required to spend the night in his own combat position, he cannot give his opponent any opportunity to launch a night attack. However, it was this decision that made his thoughts clear to Alexander.
Before the Battle of Gaugamela, the Persians had only 2,000 Greek mercenaries left
The Macedonians noted that Darius' Greek mercenaries were so small that they were almost the size of two infantry regiments on their side. Therefore, the right wing where it is located is bound to be the real main direction of attack. On their outer flank, with the exception of light infantry from the Caucasus, they were dominated by elite heavy cavalry from Syria, Cappadocia and Armenia. Together with the supplementary forces on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea and the Parthian region, it had an extremely strong attack. In front of them were 50 rolling scythe chariots spearheading the charge, followed by kalya, babylonians, Medes, and Scythians of first-class cavalry quality who were good at infantry.
Alexander must have been very concerned about the other side's left-wing deployment, because that would have been Darius's lesson from the Battle of Issus. In addition to the Kaldak infantry, which was modeled after the Greeks, there were numerous cavalry from Persia, Bactria and the Caspian Sea coast. Apparently, the Persian king did not want his left side to be easily breached this time, so he gave the governor Bethus, who was in charge of the command of this wing, a very mechanical force. A total of 100 rolling chariots were deployed in front of the battle, which obviously had the meaning of directly disrupting the Macedonian elite. Even if you can't defeat your opponent, you can delay as much as possible and buy time for the heavy troops on the right wing.
The late Persian Empire was heavily armored
Finally, in the middle of the road, Darius' personal safety was taken care of by the undead infantry and the royal noble cavalry. In front of them were not only 50 chariots, but also 15 elephants from India. It was only because of his lack of experience in using these behemoths that the Persian king finally decided to leave them all in the rear camp.
The biggest flaw in the Persian battle plan was how to control such a large force on a chaotic battlefield. According to the most conservative estimates, its total force size is at least close to 100,000 people. On battlefields separated by miles, the left-center-right armies are all multi-line composed of complex branches of troops. As a result, most of its forces would be out of control after the start of the war. Darius's intention may have been to let the two governors play their own role, and only to make requirements in the overall layout. But it also laid the groundwork for his final failure.
Darius III with his personal bodyguards
<h1 class="ql-align-justify" > epic raid</h1>
The layout and mode of operation of both sides of the Battle of Gaugamela
On October 1, the two armies of the fierce army officially advanced towards each other's positions. Alexander, with his leading cavalry composed entirely of Macedonian nobles, habitually appeared on the right flank of the main front, attracting the attention of the Persian side.
When the Emperor commanded the whole army to launch a diagonal maneuver to the right flank, Darius also let his left and right wings begin to attack separately. The 200 vehicles scattered across the three fronts also charged at the immediate target almost simultaneously. At this point, the Battle of Gaugamela, which will determine the fate of Asia for hundreds of years to come, has fully erupted!
Thracian javelin bearer who served heavily in the Macedonian army
Considering that his inferior forces were completely exposed to open terrain, Alexander deployed a large number of light infantry in front of each detachment. These ranged from the most warlike Agarian javelins to mountain warriors from other Thracian tribes. They were often accompanied by elite archers from Macedonia or Crete, perfect for rounding up and killing chariots in a state of acceleration.
Thanks to their efforts, most of the Persian tanks were intercepted halfway through. A small number of survivors were able to approach the phalanx of spears that were maneuvering to the right, but were still scattered by trained soldiers. This was followed by the Greek allies on the second line, who easily wiped out all these fish.
Most of the Persian chariots were not able to approach the Macedonian phalanx forces
But the Persian offensive was much more than that. Bethus, who had long served as governor of Bactria, instigated a large number of eastern cavalry to kill Alexander himself in the vanguard position on the right flank. These elite detachments of horse harnesses quickly crushed the lightly armoured Greek mercenary cavalry and provoked Alexander to send more allies to the battle. The macedonian army's battlefield command system had a clear advantage in such mobile engagements. On the one hand, Alexander had to command the cavalry movement around him, and on the other hand, he could also send troops from other positions to reinforce each other by means of passing orders, blowing trumpets and flags.
As a result, the eastern cavalry, which had previously been fierce, suddenly found themselves suddenly trapped in the tactical trap deployed by their opponents. Not only did more Macedonian Allied cavalry charge at them, but there were also light infantry rushing around to project fire on themselves, and even Greek heavy infantry recruited from the Achaean region for cover. These were alexander's reserves on the outside of the right flank, similar in line with Darius' group division strategy. But a smaller detachment size not only saves limited troops, but also gives commanders more flexible options.
The Persian eastern cavalry was not able to accomplish its intended objectives
Bethus could only get more cavalry to press forward and go around to the outside of the position to raid. There, however, they encountered Greek Allied infantry from the second line, and were then blocked by the shield wall of heavy infantry. Thus, the Persian left wing, though it appeared to besiege the Macedonian right flank on the scene, was in fact being driven backwards by the advancing opponent.
On the other side of the battlefield, Mazaias's situation was similar to that of Bethus. A large number of heavily armed cavalry armed to the teeth, under the cover of mounted archers, attempted flank raids. But they were also sniped from long range by Cretan archers and Thracian javelins. Parmanio, a veteran commander of the Macedonian left wing, like mercenary infantry and other Greek cavalry from Athens, kept launching a counterattack against the Persians. Among them, the cavalry from the cities of Thessalius and other cities such as Phalsalus was the most elite. They had a level of cavalry comparable to that of the Macedonian nobility, and they did not fall behind in the confrontation with the powerful enemies in Asia.
The Macedonian cavalry had a great advantage in close combat
As Mazayas continued to extend his flanks, he would also encounter Greek allies who had come to reinforcements from the second front. However, due to the rapid attack speed of the cavalry, the infantry responsible for support could not actually be in place in time. Their only achievement was to bring the entire Macedonian left flank to a halt and defend. As Alexander's personally restrained right flank continued to advance, a deadly gap was formed between the phalanx infantry in the middle.
Darius, who has always been in the middle of the road, certainly will not miss this great opportunity. He not only sent cavalry from India to attack from the front, but also began to deploy infantry that had been in the second line in time. The process was bound to be slow, but with both wings attacking at full strength, there were virtually no other cover units around him and the undead infantry. He knew that Alexander was good at flanking raids and did not want this mistake to be seized by his opponents. But the ineffectual dispatch capabilities of the Persian army gave the Macedonians a good opportunity.
Under the two-way containment of Persia, the entire Macedonian army was also cut in two
So far, Neither Alexander's companion cavalry nor the Guards infantry had participated directly in the battle. Under the cover of the surrounding Allies, they steadily and firmly left their original positions and tried to maneuver to the flank of the Persian central front. Although the surrounding area has long been killed, they are still waiting for their best time to start. To do so, they had to face not only the danger of a rupture of the entire front, but also the Indian cavalry that was passing from the flank rear.
It was not until Alexander, seeing that the entire Persian flank had been completely squeezed out of its original position, that he ordered his companion cavalry and 3,000 Guards infantry to accelerate their advance and turn to the left where Darius should be. Before the sluggish Persian second-line troops were in place, a fatal blow was launched that would determine the outcome of the entire battle.
Coordinated onslaught of horse-inspired cavalry with elite infantry
So, under the horrified gaze of Darius and the others, Alexander and his elite cavalry were killed. The ten thousand undead troops responsible for the safety of the king also immediately turned their heads to meet the battle, but in the face of a large number of condescending 3-meter long guns, they were still a little powerless with only 2 meters of spears. The high-speed charge of the partner cavalry quickly invalidated the compound bow suitable for long-distance combat, and the battle became a bloody melee.
Soon, the Macedonian Guards infantry arrived in time, and together with the cavalry, they launched a joint strangulation of the core of the Persian army. Although the best infantry in Persia resisted desperately, they found themselves completely lacking friendly assistance. As the 4 Macedonian lance phalanx approached, the dense gun forest completely suppressed the Persians.
The Macedonian phalanx was actually only involved in the final phase of the fighting
Instead of escaping at Issus, Darius chose to fight to the end. But a javelin fired from the midst of a rebellious army killed the driver who was driving for the King of Persia. Due to the confusion and blurred vision, many soldiers thought that the king himself had been beheaded. Fear quickly spread throughout the army, causing many to flee. At this point, Darius could only leave at the request of the people on the left and right, and fell into the dust in Alexander's eager eyes.
Alexander, who had already won a preliminary victory, prepared to continue his pursuit, but news from the other side of the battlefield interrupted his original plan.
In the confusion Darius was mistaken for death by his soldiers
Pamanio, who had only two infantry regiments, sent a plea for help from Alexander, saying that he was completely surrounded by Mazayas's forces. In addition, news of the Indian cavalry attacking the temporary heavy battalion also arrived. Two things happened at the same time, forcing the Macedonian king to turn around and rush to his left wing.
In the process, they encountered Syrian and Indian cavalry that had actually begun a frenzied breakout. After a fierce close-quarters battle, the partner cavalry completed the rescue of the friendly forces, and the Persians were able to escape the chaos. They fought unusually tenaciously on the right, but they could not save the outcome of the entire battle.
Alexander used his usual right-wing diagonal attack tactics in an unfavorable situation
<h1 class="ql-align-justify" > shake the pattern of civilization</h1>
After the war Alexander entered Babylon in the chariot of the captured Persian emperors
With the battle of Gaugamela divided, the Persian Empire lost the opportunity to defeat the Macedonians in the end. Darius III had to abandon the important city of Babylon and flee to the Medes further east for refuge. The whole of affluent Babylonia was also completely defenseless, and was later easily conquered by Alexander's army.
In the fierce fighting that lasted for several hours, the main infantry on both sides did not actually have much hand-to-hand meeting. The Macedonian phalanx of spears was accompanied by cavalry maneuvers on both flanks, and there were only battles with rolling scythe chariots and small groups of enemies. Coupled with the cavalry of the tribe killed in battle, the casualties were only more than 100. But given the large number of high-intensity battles fought by mercenaries and allies, the actual casualty figures would undoubtedly be much higher.
Macedonian soldiers cleaning up the battlefield
The losses of the Persians in battle should also not be overestimated. Although both flanks of cavalry and the undead were devastated, the main force remained intact. Even the 2,000 Greek infantry who survived the Battle of Issus were lucky enough to survive in the Battle of Gaugamela. The excessively rapid charge of the Persian right-wing cavalry kept them virtually away from the main battle. They are also the units with the best order of retreat after a large-scale rout of the whole army. Later, they once again joined the remnants of Darius's army, and together with Bethus's eastern forces, became the remnants of the Persian king. Nearly 90,000 casualties written by classical Greco-Roman writers could not have happened in any case.
However, due to the defeat at the Battle of Gaugamela, Darius lost Babylon and the main treasury funds as the core of the empire's economy. A large number of troops from different provinces either fled back to their hometowns on the same path or because they had lost long-term defeat and no longer had confidence in resistance. Mazayas, the governor of Syria, was one of the many Persian nobles who surrendered after the war. Thus, Darius's Persian army was in fact completely disintegrated by Alexander.
Persian undead soldiers dressed in Greek weapons
Neither side at the time could have imagined that with the fall of babylon, the pattern of world civilization would change significantly. Previously, the Two Rivers Basin had always been a central area that could influence the development of the world situation. But with the influx of Macedonian and large numbers of Allied soldiers, Greek culture from across the Aegean sea would take the upper echelons. For hundreds of years to come, Greek culture will become fashionable in many parts of Asia. Therefore, the Battle of Gaugamela was actually the end of the status of the classical two-river civilization.
However, Darius III did not give up the last hope of resisting the Macedonian invasion. While leaving Babylon, he had completed his operational deployment for the next phase. Persian monarchs, whose tactical level was far inferior to those of their opponents, would continue to try to contain each other strategically. This also forced Alexander to continue to attack the east after achieving an epic victory.