From the Spring and Autumn Five Hegemons to the Central Plains, to the Warring States Seven Heroes, the wheel of history rolled forward, and finally the Qin Empire unified Liuhe, opening a precedent for China's unification.
The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period was an era of heroes, as well as an era of ideological collision and a hundred schools of thought. The world's scholars (scholars), that is, the hundred schools of thought (Confucianism, Legalism, Taoism, Moism, Yin and Yang, Zongheng, and Celebrity...... With the grand aspiration of "universal harmony", he shuttled between the countries and tried his best to lobby and promote the strategy of the autonomous countries to secure the state.
After Qin ruled the world, where did these scholars go? In the Han Dynasty after Qin, what twists did the fate of scholars go through? Will they be able to find a place in the vast bureaucracy and put their political ideals and aspirations into practice?
All of the above is precisely the question that the book "Between Scholars: Scholars and Politics in the Han Dynasty" is dedicated to exploring. As a newly reprinted work of the Siku Literature Series · the Academy, the book deeply analyzes the complex process of the scholars of the Han Dynasty through three identity transformations with delicate brushstrokes, leading us to peek into the deep context of social changes in ancient China, and re-examining the spiritual outlook and responsibility of the scholar class that has been applied to the world and cared for the world.
An active traveler who travels far and wide
Early Western Han Dynasty (Gaozu - Emperor Wu)
After the turmoil of wars since the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, after the cool government of Qin and the Chu-Han War, the social and economic foundation of the early Han Dynasty was very fragile, and the people's livelihood was extremely difficult. In this context, the society urgently needed to recover, and Confucianism was difficult to implement for a while, and the concept of quiet and inaction of Huang Laozhixue was at the right time, which gave birth to the special politics of the early Han Dynasty - "elder politics". The elders uphold the way of Huang Lao, introverted and introspective, but as officials, they still reject knowledge and lack cultural accomplishment. Xiao He and Cao Shen are representative figures among the "elders", and "Xiao Gui Cao Sui" reflects the essence of elder politics.
Stills from the TV series "The Legend of Chu and Han" Yang Lixin plays Xiao He, and Xu Xiaojian plays Cao Shen
After decades of recuperation, the rapid recovery and development of the social economy, and the exposure and intensification of various social contradictions, the politics of the elders as the main body of the administration has completed its historical mission, and then the Confucian scholars began a long process of entering politics.
"Shi", originally the lowest rank of the nobility, had a shilu, and served in the middle and lower ranks of the administration. In a society that is constantly on the move, the tremors at the junction of the aristocracy and the common people are particularly strong, and they rely on their own cultural and traditional advantages to face reality and actively participate in politics, forming a unique character of travelers.
The "swimming" of the wanderer generally includes the following two meanings: from the perspective of social class, it has a strong wandering nature, indicating the uncertain state of its social role; In terms of cultural character, it has a prominent sense of subjectivity and is the most active stratum in society. But behind the appearance of "swimming", there is a very clear and focused purpose, which is to reposition itself in the new political structure. Therefore, it is a common way to achieve the goal of learning to become a scholar from learning.
Among the wanderers, there are many people who are only interested in profit, and sometimes make themselves to the prime minister, glory and wealth, but as a social class, the scholars are still self-responsible, not flies and dogs, otherwise there will be no contention between hundreds of schools, which is fully reflected from the prominence of the concept of Confucianism. As one of the pre-Qin scholars, Confucian scholars not only have the commonality of ordinary scholars, but also are endowed with a moral and moral dimension, and recognize and affirm the basic human values such as rationality, humanity and ethics.
Qin was located on the border and was relatively backward in culture, but it provided a broad place for the Kwantung travelers, whose activity helped Qin to become strong and prosperous, and also allowed them to stabilize their position in the political, economic, cultural and other fields, so as to cause panic among the clan nobles. Although Qin was legally guarded against Confucianism, the law of cultural development showed that the elimination of a cultural tradition could not be achieved by relying solely on political means. The nature of Legalism's contempt for culture determined that it could not achieve the mission of cultural unity, and the subsequent extreme behavior of burning books and pit Confucianism was even more counterproductive.
Qin Shihuang played by Yu Hewei in "The Legend of Chu and Han".
In the years after Qin burned books and pit Confucianism, the travelers were still very active. The tradition of travelers since the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period was continued in the early Han Dynasty. Liu Bang established the Han Dynasty, which not only followed the Qin politics of legal officials, but also inherited the cultural tradition of youshi, which made the early Han Dynasty show the characteristics of active travelers and design Han politics on the basis of reflecting on Qin politics.
A Confucian scholar who wandered on the fringes of politics
Late Western Han Dynasty (Emperor Zhao - Xinmang)
After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty adopted Dong Zhongshu's suggestion of "respecting Confucianism alone", the wanderers generally began to transform into Confucian scholars, which was the first change in the identity of scholars.
The imperial court cultivated a large number of Confucian scholars through the establishment of Taixue County and County Schools, and absorbed a large number of Confucian scholars into the official career through the inspection system. The number of Confucian scholars increased dramatically, and formal channels for Confucian scholars to enter politics were established. Due to the sluggishness of the change of Confucian identity and role, during the period from Emperor Zhao to Xin Mang, Confucian scholars were still in a subordinate position in practical politics. Scribes were still dominant, and "embellishing the affairs of the officials with scriptures" or "embellishing the law with elegance" became the basic characteristics of the relationship between scholars and politics in this period.
Zhang Guolin's Printmaking "Han Dynasty Taixue and Confucianism"
Ideologically, Dong Zhongshu's political theory of heaven and man became the value standard of scholars and determined their value orientation. Under the influence of Dong's doctrine, the Confucian scholars had a weak concept of "family in the world" and did not entrust themselves to one dynasty and one surname, although they showed a strong sense of defending the Han court for a long time, but it was qualitatively different from the loyalty of later generations.
This is because to maintain the Han court is to maintain the "Heavenly Unity" and "Mandate of Heaven". Until a dynasty finally loses its mandate, it is still the will of heaven, and it is only when the old virtues are hopeless and the new virtues arise that the scholars obey the mandate of heaven and turn to the new virtues, and the political situation is the decisive factor in this transformation. Wang Mang reformed the ancient system, took advantage of the Confucian scholars' belief in Confucianism, easily realized the change of power, and established a new dynasty. This process shows that metaphysical Confucianism and Confucianism are far from being able to meet the needs of dynastic politics.
After becoming the emperor, the politics of the Western Han Dynasty deteriorated, Han De was generally suspicious, no longer nostalgic for the society, Wang Mang coincided with his meeting, appeared in the face of Xinde, and became the center of gravity of politics for a while, the scholars turned to Wang Mang after saving Han De hopelessly, Wang easily transferred Han Zuo, established a new dynasty, and almost achieved a smooth transition of imperial power in a peaceful way.
The political outcome of the Western Han Dynasty shows that the defects of the slow transformation of Confucian identity and role are far from being able to meet the needs of feudal politics, and the "officialization" policy implemented after the establishment of the Eastern Han Dynasty is to change this situation and accelerate the process of Confucian identity transformation.
A scholar who became the pillar of the dynasty
Early Eastern Han Dynasty (Emperor Guangwu - Emperor Zhang)
After the Confucianization of officials in the late Western Han Dynasty and the transformation of scholars in the early Eastern Han Dynasty, the scholars and officials finally merged, and the scholars were the mainstay, forming the foundation of feudal politics ——— the scholar class. The transformation of Confucian scholars into scholars was the second transformation of scholars. The scholarly class was formed by the conflict between scholars and officials, and this process was the process of Confucian scholars gradually moving to the center of the political arena.
The transformation of scholars refers to the cultivation and strengthening of the actual political quality of scholars by administrative means in the Eastern Han Dynasty, changing the traditional concept of scholars as "gentlemen are not instrumental" and the reality that scholars can speak but cannot act, and enhancing the status and influence of scholars in political practice. This objectively accelerated the combination of scholars and officials, accelerated the formation process of the scholar class, the foundation of feudal politics, and accelerated the transformation of scholars' identities.
Scholars are a new type of political personality, which not only has the sense of authoritarian political orthodoxy, but also has the practical literacy of good things and chaos. It is not as lofty and self-reliant as the traditional Confucian scholars, and it is different from the traditional scribes who are steep and mean; It is not only the defender of autocratic rule, but also the inheritor and disseminator of orthodox culture.
From the point of view of identity, scholars can be both bureaucrats and gentry who have not yet become officials. The bureaucratic class constituted the main body of administration, and the status of the "officials" who were responsible for specific administrative affairs was greatly reduced. If the functions of the bureaucracy are mainly embodied in political practice, then the functions of the gentry are mainly embodied in cultural inheritance, social education, and the maintenance of social values and moral education. The bureaucracy and the gentry were both part of the gentry and served as the basis of autocracy. According to Wu Han's view: "Bureaucrat is the title of a scholar in an official position, and gentleman is the social identity of a scholar." ”
From the perspective of a broader social background, the "scholar" class, as the lowest level of the nobility of the Shiqing Shilu system, has finally completed the transformation of its own identity and realized the repositioning of its political role. In the great changes and reconstruction of the social structure, a small part of the scholar class was moved down to the common people, while the main part turned into scholars based on cultural knowledge, which became the strong foundation of feudal politics.
Although the connotation of the political personality of scholars is different from generation to generation, its mode and role have not changed since the end of the feudal world, and it has become the mainstay of the dynasty and the cornerstone of national politics.
The blood and tears behind the Celebrity Romance
Late Eastern Han Dynasty (Emperor He-Emperor Xiandi)
During the period from Emperor He to Emperor Xian, the politics of each dynasty was a cycle of foreign relatives-eunuch autocracy. Relatives and eunuchs, as dissident forces in dynastic politics, were diametrically opposed to the foundation of dynastic politics, the scholar class. In the course of the cycle, the degree of political corruption has become increasingly intensified, and the role of scholars in saving the world and being a pillar has become increasingly prominent. In the two confrontations with the forces of foreign relatives and eunuchs, the scholar class naturally formed a political group and was called "party members".
The scholars took the world as their own responsibility, reflecting a strong sense of dynastic politics, and pointed the spearhead directly at relatives and eunuchs. In the struggle with eunuchs and relatives, the political personality of scholars was embodied in a strong sense of dynasty, and it was their duty to clarify the world and rectify discipline; The character is upright and square, jealous and hateful, and the struggle is resolute.
While resolutely fighting, the political personality of the scholars also gradually turned, and the fierce struggle constituted the premise for the turn. Turning refers to a change in the direction of consciousness, not a change in the political personality model. The two party bans, especially the second party ban, killed more than 100 people, and the implicated death, migration, abolition, and prohibition amounted to 6 or 700 people.
For example, Guo Tai chose to alienate himself from the brutal political struggle in order to keep his whole body from disaster; Wang Fu called himself a "hidden husband" and wrote "The Theory of a Hidden Husband" in seclusion; Zhong Changtong "rebelled against the Five Classics and abandoned the elegance", "opened the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and opened the wind of Xuanxuan". The scholars' pursuit of individual freedom and spiritual liberation gave birth to the birth of the Baume & Mercier class. The transformation from a scholar to a celebrity is the third transformation of the scholar's identity, and it is also a unique way for them to cope with social changes.
Song · Su Xianzu "Zhongchang Tongle Zhitu"
From the perspective of human development, the turn of political personality means breaking free from the shackles of orthodoxy and discovering oneself, which has the meaning of progress. But in the present world, this turn was full of the blood and tears of scholars. Zeng Shen said that "scholars must be Hongyi, and there is a long way to go", which has indeed become the motto of scholars. Scholars have their own cultural traditions and a strong sense of mission, so the relationship between scholars and politics has a side that goes beyond utilitarianism.
"Between Scholars: Han Dynasty People and Politics" by Wang Baoding, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, · Siku, published ISBN 978-7-214-27464-9 in July 2024
◎ Introduction
During the more than 400 years of the Han Dynasty, the identity of scholars has undergone three changes: from travelers to Confucians, from Confucian scholars to scholars, from scholars to scholars, and from scholars to celebrities. This process is not only the process of political shaping of scholars, but also the process of scholars adapting to politics. This book mainly explores the evolution of the relationship between scholars and politics in the Han Dynasty, explores the historical implications of the transformation of scholars' political identities, and systematically sorts out and comprehensively presents the whole process of scholars' transformation from liberal intellectuals who embraced Taoism and guided the world in the pre-Qin period to bureaucrats embedded in the autocratic ruling system in the middle and late Eastern Han Dynasty.
◎ About the Author
Wang Baoding Ph.D. in History. He has been engaged in editing and publishing for a long time, planned a number of major book publishing projects, and won many national awards such as the China Publishing Government Award and the China Outstanding Publication Award. The monograph "Interpretation of the First Four Histories" was selected into the monthly list of "China's Good Books"; He has published more than 20 academic papers in academic journals at home and abroad, such as "Ethnic Studies", "Studies in Chinese History", and "Confucius and Mencius Monthly".
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 "Elder Politics" and the Legacy of Wanderers (Gaozu - Emperor Wu) 12
A "politics of the elderly" 12
II. The Wanderer's Legacy 20
III. The Completion of the Political Design and the End of the Wanderer 37
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Chapter 2 Scholars and Politics after "Confucianism" (Emperor Zhao-Xin Mang) 60
1. "Embellishment of the Officials with Sutras": Confucian Scholars in a Subordinate Position 61
2. From Fu Han to Fu Mang: A Logical Change in the Political Orientation of the Scholars 83
Chapter 3 The Formation of the Political Personality of the Scholar (Emperor Guangwu-Emperor Zhang) 103
I. The Establishment of an Authoritarian Political Theory 105
II. Officialization: The Transformation of Confucian Identity 119
III. The Formation and Characteristics of the Political Personality of the Scholar 138
Chapter 4 The Practice and Transformation of the Political Personality of the Scholar (Hedi-Xiandi) 149
I. The Practice of Political Personality 149
II. The Turn of the Political Personality of the Scholar 162
Conclusion 176
Appendix 185
The Cultural Tradition of Youshi and Its End—The Evolution of the Scholar Class in the Western Han Dynasty 187
On the Influence and End of Dong Zhongshu's Five Virtues' Final Doctrine 202
On the Relationship between Dong Zhongshu and Sima Qian's Historical Records 217
A Brief Discussion on the Disaster of the Han Dynasty 233
From Fu Han to Fu Mang: The Transformation of the Political Orientation of Scholars in the Late Western Han Dynasty 248
Wang Fu, Guo Tai, Zhong Changtong: The Progressive Trajectory of the Political Character Turn of the Scholars in the Late Han Dynasty 263
Bibliography 276
Postscript 283
Postscript to the reprint 286
Finishing | Cloth typesetting | Lekky
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