In ancient times, due to geographical barriers, China had few opportunities for direct communication with other civilizations in the distance. Even in rare cases, conflicts were mainly based on naval battles, which did not give full play to the local advantages of Chinese civilization. Due to geographical limitations, direct communication with the outside world is very limited, and even if there are some incidents of conflict, they are extremely rare. In general, most of these conflicts took place at sea and did not fully demonstrate the strength of Chinese culture.
While there are always unexpected things happening in life, there are four typical examples that we can take from history. These examples, although they vary greatly in time and in large scales, are all very precious imprints of civilization.
【Ban Chao forced the battle of Kushan】
Around the beginning of the first century AD, the confrontation between the Han Dynasty and the Kushan Dynasty took shape.
In the first century AD, with the resurgence of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Luoyang's decision-makers set out to build a more solid imperial structure. At the end of the distant Hexi Corridor existed a vast world that became a key area for the expansion of the empire. At the same time, a new and powerful empire, the Kushan Empire, was emerging in Afghanistan and North India, and was also trying to expand eastward for economic gain. The rivalry between these two great powers was unavoidable, so much so that it gradually developed to the point of fighting each other and tense confrontation. During this period, the decision-makers of both the Han and Kushan empires actively sought to expand their territory and influence. Both sides see the other as a potential threat and try to secure their interests through military means. The history of this period was full of wars and rivalries, and the conflict between the two empires intensified. Eventually, this tension turned into a direct military confrontation, with both sides engaged in a fierce struggle for control.
In 90 AD, a vice-king of the Kushan Empire, named Xie, led an army on a campaign. His aim was to remove the obstacles that stood in the way of his diplomatic plans. However, according to ancient records, the number of 70,000 troops he led may have been exaggerated to intimidate. This may be an inflated figure to show the achievements of the Prefecture. The Kushan Empire adopted a system similar to that of classical Persia. Under this system, there are many regional administrators above the supreme ruler. Therefore, although this vice-king has power, he cannot mobilize all the resources and can only rely on the areas he directly manages. Among the provinces of the Kushan Empire in the Western Regions of the Han Dynasty, there is one place that stands out in particular, and that is Dawan. Dawan was twice conquered by the Western Han Dynasty. Except for the cities inhabited by the aristocracy, most of them are riverside grasslands inhabited by herders. It is quite difficult to mobilize sufficient troops. In addition, in order to reduce the cost of rule, the Kushan Empire often rotated the soldiers of the northern and southern Hindu Kush Mountains. This practice actually further weakened their combat effectiveness. In such an environment, Vice King Xie's journey to conquest will inevitably face great challenges.
The Kushan core cavalry had a limited number and was mainly deployed on the southern battlefield.
At this point, the biggest challenge they face is the logistical dilemma. Because of the deterioration of the local environment, the necessities of survival are scattered in the oases, so it is easy for the indigenous people to hide and remove them. Due to the impassability of the vast Tarim Central Desert, the Kushan army had to be diverted into the northern part of the basin. In order to ensure the safety of the army, several garrisons were carried out along the route, which soon led to the loss of the original numerical advantage. In particular, the Dawan soldiers, as the main force, are reluctant to take strong measures against culturally similar ethnic groups, which makes it difficult to implement any regional blockade operation. As a result, they must look for new strategies to overcome these difficulties.
Among the many uncertainties, the only key factor is the turtles from the Tocharian descent. Qiuzi has a sizable area of oasis wetlands, which makes it one of the few places that can provide adequate recharge. Therefore, Vice Wang Xie decided to send an envoy to Qiuci to purchase grain and grass. However, they did not expect that Ban Chao had set up an ambush in the area, and as a result, the messenger was intercepted and killed by his soldiers.
In the northern fort of Kushan, the garrison army consisted mainly of Indian soldiers.
When Ban Chao delivered the heads of the dead to the enemy as trophies, the intensity of this seemingly absurd war can be imagined. If the Kushan really have enough manpower to lock down some cities, how do they keep the information flowing with all parties? As for the so-called annual tributes and apologies after the war, they were more of a rhetorical device used by imperial historians to glorify trade exchanges.
Overall, although there were military clashes between the Eastern Han Dynasty in Luoyang and the Kushan in Peshawar, there was no bitterness between the two. Because there are many issues that the two sides need to deal with together, such as the numerous Scythian-Iranian ethnic groups in the Transoxians, the Seven Rivers Valley, North India, Sistan, and the Western Regions, they will naturally not be affected by minor disputes. Relations between the two regions remain stable and have not been deterred by the conflict. At the same time, they also understand each other's common interests, so they maintain a cooperative attitude. Overall, the incident did not cause a rupture or deterioration in relations between the two sides.
Ban Chao is a wise man who is good at using diplomatic means, and he is good at using the strength of others to achieve his goals.
【Battle of Talas】
In the long course of history, the Battle of Talas was undoubtedly a major defeat experienced by the Central Plains army at that time, and its impact was far-reaching.
Around 751 AD, a decisive battle took place in the city of Taraz, located in present-day southern Kazakhstan. The battle was fought by the Abbasid army of the Arab Empire against the soldiers and horses of the four towns of Anxi of the Tang Dynasty. The Arab armies eventually won, not only as a pivotal moment in the struggle between two great civilizations for control of the river region, but also in a rare duel between the military power of ancient East and Inner Asia. The outcome of this war had a profound impact on the future direction of the two civilizations.
Gao Xianzhi's army consisted of about 14,000 infantry, and they were lined up in a two-tier formation according to the traditional Tang army strategy. The soldiers formed small groups of 50 people, each arranged in the classic wedge-shaped triangular formation, and the whole formation was staggered back and forth like a chessboard. Each line was further subdivided into two columns, the front and the rear, and each soldier was armed with spears and bows and arrows. Most of these soldiers wore helmets, and more than half of them wore armor, and their main difference was the bow and arrow in their hands. Warriors from the interior wore longbows characteristic of the Central Plains, while soldiers recruited from the Western Regions wore Scythian-style nomadic bows. Their equipment and tactics reflected the sophistication and uniqueness of the Don Army.
In the early stages of the Tang Dynasty, infantry played an important role in the army. Dressed in uniform and armed with spears and shields, they were an indispensable force on the battlefield. This is the image of the infantry in the early and middle Tang Dynasty. Infantry soldiers in the early Tang Dynasty were often characterized by steady pace and strict discipline, and they often underwent military training in order to execute orders quickly and accurately on the battlefield. They are known for their spirit of solidarity and cooperation, supporting each other and defending themselves against foreign enemies. In short, in the early and middle Tang Dynasty, infantry was the backbone of the army, and their image represented discipline, courage, and unity.
The Anxi army consisted of about 6,000 cavalry, which were divided into two teams and lined up on either side of the second-line troops. Most of them were light cavalry with bows and arrows, which were of the Turkic style. There was also a small reserve group, which were well-armed heavy cavalry from the Northern Dynasties. General Gao Xianzhi led a part of the elite guard, which was located in the rear of the entire army. As for the cavalry of the Qarluq Turks, most of them were deployed on the left side of the Don army and were responsible for protecting the battle of the whole army. And on the baggage caravan and transport line, there is also a team from the Bahanna that is busy at work. On the whole, the cavalry of the Anxi Army was well-equipped and had a clear division of labor to protect the battle of the whole army. The cavalry of the Qarluq Turks and the work of the Bahans also played an important role in the victory of the battle.
The number of Arab infantry in Surrey's Khorasan forces probably did not exceed 1,000. They adopted a form of organization in units of 10 people, and formed a total of 100 squads. The style of equipment of this unit was heavily influenced by the Uhmailyad period of the former Syrian-Hellenistic dynasty, similar to the Byzantine infantry in the West. At the front, there were six platoons of heavy infantry, who were dressed in helmets and armor, armed with spears and shields, and also armed with swords. And in the rear, there were four rows of archers, their protective equipment was relatively simple, and they fought mainly with an Arab bow, which could fire heavy arrows. The establishment and equipment of the entire army reflect its unique tactical style and actual combat capability.
The Tang Dynasty's formation pattern mainly used standardized military formations, including phalanxes, long snake formations, etc., which could effectively protect soldiers and exert their combat effectiveness on the battlefield. This formation mode not only takes into account factors such as terrain and enemy situation, but also emphasizes the coordinated operation between soldiers and the effective operation of the command system. At the same time, the width and depth of the formation will also be adjusted according to the actual situation of the battlefield to achieve the best combat effect. In short, the Tang Dynasty's formation mode had the characteristics of standardization, flexibility and actual combat, and was an important part of the war at that time. In the Tang Dynasty, there was a clear standard method for arranging troops in war. This includes common military formations such as phalanxes and serpents. They are all carefully designed to effectively protect soldiers and maximize their combat effectiveness. This arrangement not only takes into account the terrain and the enemy's situation, but also places special emphasis on cooperation between soldiers and the operation of the command system. In specific applications, the size and layout of the formation will be flexibly adjusted according to the actual situation of the battlefield to ensure the best combat effect. In short, the Tang Dynasty's array pattern was standardized, flexible, and practical, which was of great significance for the warfare of the time.
In battle, the main forces were Persians from Khorasan and other places. They were relatively poorly equipped and organized in the traditional Persian way as squads of 10 people. The heavy infantry at the front, armed with rudimentary wicker shields, each armed with two short spears that could be thrown. The light infantry in the rear, on the other hand, had little protection and relied mainly on Scythian bows and arrows as weapons. In addition, a large number of soldiers recruited from the small states of the river and the surrounding areas of Persia constituted the front line of the whole army. These soldiers did not have any protective equipment, but they adopted tactics somewhat similar to those of the Don army, fighting with a combination of spears and bows and arrows. Although their equipment is not outstanding, their courage and determination are on full display on the battlefield.
Knights from the river region, Khorezm, and Persia formed the flanks of Abbas's army. Their ranks consisted of lightly armed nomadic archers, as well as well-equipped Persian heavy cavalry. Although the horses of the Arab knights were unarmoured, they themselves were equipped with excellent protective gear. They, as reserves, were located in the rear of the entire infantry front. Surrey, like Gao Xianzhi, commanded the battle at the rear of the whole army under the protection of a handful of guards.
During the Umayyad period, the infantry of the era was called the "Maiye Guards".
The Battle of Talas was a major conflict between the military systems of ancient East and Inner Asia. Interestingly, the tactics employed by the Tang army, although considered standard at the time, were actually introduced from the Inner Asian region hundreds of years ago. To the west of the Green Ridge, infantry have been fighting for thousands of years with bows and arrows in one hand and spears in the other. The cavalry units are a blend of the fighting techniques of the Xianbei of the past and the Turks of the present. This battle undoubtedly witnessed the fierce collision and integration of two different military systems.
The most significant change in the military changes of the Tang Dynasty was that they gradually adopted infantry as the main tactical force, and switched to the conscription system to replace the conscripted soldiers of the past. In the battle against various enemies, they adopted a more aggressive tactic, which was to take turns to attack. This tactic was so aggressive that immediately after every two volleys of arrows, they would make a spear charge. With the assault of the wedges, they were able to create many gaps in the enemy front. If there was strong resistance at the front, they would immediately send a second team of soldiers for reinforcements. This two-front tactic, which allows for at least four rounds of charges, makes it difficult for most enemies to resist. In short, the uniqueness of their military strategy lies in their infantry-led tactics and their clever use of tactics in quick counterattacks.
In the Battle of Talas, the troops of Khorasan and Khorezm, as well as troops from the river, together formed the main force of the Arab army.
However, the enemy troops encountered by the Tang army this time were Arab troops, who were known for their tenacity. Historically, they excelled in fierce battles, often engaging in long encounters with the armies of Byzantium and Sassanid Persia. They often take advantage of the enemy's exhaustion to deliver a fatal blow that successfully repel their opponents. As for the northern part of Persia, located near Khorasan, it is the best source of infantry in Central Asia due to its mountainous location, tenacious folk customs and brave spirit. Therefore, the challenges faced by the Tang army this time should not be underestimated.
Over the next five days, the Abbasid armies in Central Asia engaged in a series of fierce battles with Tang forces in East Asia. These battles were as striking as Mars hitting Earth, with several confrontations taking place. Abbas's vanguard troops, their cannon fodder army, were helpless in the face of the Tang infantry charge, and could only resist and deplete the enemy's forces slightly. However, the Don army, having lost its charging power, was quickly suppressed by the intensive fire of the Persian infantry using throwing spears and bows. The two sides went back and forth, repeatedly shooting and charging, but neither could completely defeat the other side, and had to regroup and enter the battle again.
A common pattern of array orchestration used by the Abbasid military.
In this battle, Gao Xianzhi may have used his usual roundabout tactics to send out the last elite infantry team to try to circle the right flank of Abbas's army. At the same time, Surrey's Arab infantry quietly detoured from the hidden positions of the reserves, in the hope of cutting off the enemy's retreat. They used this strategy to encircle and outflank in order to gain an advantage on the battlefield.
After five days of fierce fighting, the Don army began to show signs of exhaustion. They may have encountered considerable difficulties in the confrontation with the cavalry on both wings. Because the local cavalry of Central Asia, both in terms of their armor and the quality of their horses, were superior to the Don army from the east. Against the background of equal numbers and similar tactics on both sides, the losses of the Don army could be even more serious. And for the infantry, who are good at charging, they are contained again and again and are in a difficult situation. Abbas's ingenious multi-front deployment tactics effectively weakened the morale of the Don army. In such a war situation, the pressure faced by the Tang Army should not be underestimated.
The Tang Dynasty army was more inclined to engage lightly armed enemy forces. During the Tang Dynasty, the combat habits of the army were more inclined to fight with lightly armed troops.
The Qarluqs witnessed the whole process while they were on guard on the perimeter of the two armies. They observed that as soon as it was established that the Don army could not win, the traditional custom of the Inner Asian region began to work, which was to abandon those who were perceived as weak.
On the fifth day of the campaign, they signed a cooperation agreement with the Abbasid people, who had a more similar culture. This sudden counterattack greatly demoralized the exhausted Tang army, which began to fall into chaos and collapse.
From a military point of view, the outcome of the Battle of Talas was a complete defeat.
【Battle of Huyu Island】
Little is known about the Battle of Huyu Island, and few people know about its history.
In 1541, Antonio de Faria, the captain of the mercenaries, was indeed a figure to be reckoned with. He successfully established his own trading company, often leading fleets of different sizes for trading activities. His fleet included not only experienced Portuguese veterans and sailors, but also slaves and vassals from Malacca and elsewhere. Together, they ran the trade group, demonstrating his leadership and organizational skills.
Due to the impact of severe weather such as typhoons, the fleet off the coast of Fujian suffered serious losses. Some of the crew members were lost, and some were seized by the Ming army. After that, relying on a small number of locals to lead the way, they eventually found a place to be stationed on the island called Nou. During the Ming Dynasty, Fujian had only a few coastal strongholds isolated from the mainland, one of which was the island of Huyu under the Weixia of Zhangzhou, which was the closest to their target. There are about 4,000 Zhangzhou garrisons on the island, and they are not only responsible for guarding Kinmen Island in the northeast, but also responsible for the security of Xiamen in the northwest, and also have to deal with some illegal trade practices such as local maritime goods that frequently appear from the deeper port of Yue.
Huyu Island, which is close to Zhangzhou, Xiamen and Kinmen.
In the beginning, Antonio tried to resolve the conflict through negotiation and discussion. But when he realized that peaceful means would not help, he decided to use force as a means of solving the problem. This brief skirmish eventually turned into the only land battle between the regular Ming army and the early European armies.
Antonio managed to assemble a ground combat squad of 300 people. It consisted of 70 Portuguese soldiers and sailors, who fought with arquebuses as their main weapon. The rest of the group relied mainly on spears, round shields, and light swords to attack. In addition, a group of smugglers from Fujian formed a temporary alliance with them at a critical moment, and sent 230 armed men to help in the war.
In the area east of Malacca, Portuguese explorers often resorted to local boats for their adventures.
According to available information, the army of the Ming Dynasty should have a theoretical configuration of about 2,200 people. However, due to the financial constraints of the imperial court, the retreat of the defensive line, and problems with the land system, the number of garrisons on Huyu Island was reduced to about 1,000 to 1,200 men. Despite halving their numbers, the soldiers still adhered to standard combat procedures and array deployments. In the army, there were about a tenth of the cavalry, who, as a vanguard force, played a vital role on the battlefield. While the rest of the infantry was distributed behind and on the sides of the cavalry, they used bows and arrows, early muskets, or swords and shields as weapons. Despite their relatively low status and somewhat demoralized demoralization, they remained at their posts and worked hard to carry out combat missions. In short, although the Ming army was reduced in numbers due to various problems, they still maintained a basic combat organization and weaponry, with cavalry leading the army as an important force and infantry providing strong support.
The Ming army, who was fighting at home, was actually not confident in his heart. They tried to deal with the new enemy who did not have horses by training the techniques of the cavalry. However, when some of the untrained soldiers fell off the backs of their galloping horses, their psychological tactics immediately fell apart. After that, they reorganized nearly a hundred cavalry and formed individual phalanxes to prepare for a surprise attack on the combined forces of Portuguese and Fujian maritime merchants. However, due to their lack of practical experience, they had to stop again to make changes to the team. This situation has made them even more discouraged and lack the confidence to defeat their new opponents. Although the cavalry technical drill was carried out, it still seemed a little hurried when facing the enemy army.
The mixed forces of Portugal, through intensive fire and hand-to-hand combat, were able to contend with any adversary on the eastern coast.
At this rare moment, the attackers began to engage in a fire onslaught, using the intensive fire of muskets to strike at the enemy. Although muskets have been widely spread in Southeast Asia, they were still rare in the closed environment of the Ming Dynasty. For the Ming Dynasty army, this new experience made the dense barrage attack bring a great shocking effect. In this close-range shot, about half of the Ming cavalry fell on the battlefield. What was even more terrifying was that the Portuguese quickly launched a hand-to-hand combat after the shot, attacking the enemy even more fiercely.
Due to the chaotic chaos of the horse team, they were unable to deal effectively with such problems while holding on to their positions. They chose to turn and flee, causing hundreds of infantry to follow suit and trample on each other, and the whole scene was extremely chaotic and tragic......
A common tactic used by the Ming army was to use cavalry to shoot in conjunction with a large number of infantry, and this tactic had a high effect on the battlefield.
【Battle at the End of the Northern Front】
The battle at the end of the northern line was an important historical event for Zheng Chenggong in the process of Taiwan's restoration.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Western world experienced a period of unprecedented rapid development. Especially in the military aspect, they gradually widened the technological gap with the ancient countries of the East. However, geographical barriers cannot be ignored, and they have somewhat slowed down the widening of this gap. This leads to a lack of in-depth understanding of the subtle and sensitive changes on both sides. The Battle of the Northern Front, for example, in 1661, illustrates a subtle manifestation of this trend. Although the West is ahead in technology, there are still limitations in how the two sides perceive each other due to geographical and cultural differences.
At that time, Zheng Chenggong sent 30 warships to surround 3 Dutch warships with a strong numerical superiority and launched a fierce siege. At the same time, a detachment of Dutch infantry was sent to land on Ojima on the Northern Front, where it was tasked with working with the troops on the water to jointly destroy the enemy along the coast. However, since other forces were no longer able to provide support, the infantry was left to rely on its own strength to deal with all threats. The commander, Captain Pullout, did not have much experience in high-intensity combat in Europe, and his men were only 250 men, and the level was uneven. Despite this, he remained confident that he would be able to defeat the Zheng army's offensive by relying on the successful experience gained in the fighting between the Indonesian and Taiwanese indigenous peoples.
The army led by Zheng Chenggong successfully landed in Taiwan.
In contrast, Chen Ze, the general of the Zheng army, responded more calmly. This was not only because he had more than 1,200 men under his command, but also because he had set a well-planned trap for the approaching enemy. He sent his lieutenant general, Huang Zhao, with half of his troops and light artillery, to build fortifications directly in front of the Dutch. The other half of the soldiers quietly went around the rear of the enemy and set up an ambush. Although most soldiers relied on cold weapons such as bows and arrows, they were well prepared for the smoke and noise of gunpowder weapons, as well as their limited lethality. Throughout the layout, Chen Ze looked very calm.
More importantly, the captain has an in-depth understanding of the intelligence of the "Ghost Puller". He trusted rumors that the Chinese were not good at fighting, especially fearing the spread of firearms, so he was not well prepared for the brutal battle that was coming. When the landing mission was completed, he immediately ordered his subordinates to organize two separate battle formations to advance, which were 10 columns of 12 men in depth. The two phalanxes will operate independently and without adequate tactical planning and coordination. This mode of action could put him and his troops at a disadvantage in battle.
In 17th-century Europe, musketeers line up to shoot. In Europe in the XVII century, there was a group of professional musketeers, who stood there neatly in a queue, ready to shoot. This scene is still impressive to this day.
When the Dutch army met the Zheng army, their soldiers appeared very confident and formed a classic shooting formation in harmony with the rhythm of the musicians' drums. After firing their muskets, the soldiers quickly retreat to the rear to reload, while the space in front is replaced by the soldiers behind to continue the attack. At the same time, the Zheng army behind the breastwork was disturbed by a large number of arrows, but despite this, they were still able to flexibly use more than fifty small artillery pieces to compensate for the lack of lethality. Their commander patrolled the ranks on horseback and spared no merciless disposal of any fleeing soldiers. Despite the greater penetration and continuous fire of the Dutch's muskets, they did not achieve a quick victory. This was due to the fact that the Zheng army resisted the enemy through flexible tactics and fire suppression. In such a tactical confrontation, both sides have their own advantages and disadvantages, and the winner is still undecided.
Although Zheng Jun was successful in this victory over the Dutch, there were some fortuitous elements. They successfully used their numerical superiority to quickly complete the encirclement with at least four times the enemy's strength. At that time, their military establishment still largely followed the military system of the Ming Dynasty. They usually had between 1,200 and 2,500 men as an independent military unit, called a town, which was then subdivided into 6 sword squads and 4 archer squads. This organizational structure made it possible for them not to temporarily split or regroup their troops, but simply wait for the enemy to fall into their pre-arranged encirclement. Therefore, this long-planned tactic was one of the key factors in their victory. Overall, the victory was the result of Zheng Jun's careful planning and preparation, but it also contained some unpredictable serendipities.
The victory of the Zheng army's army at the end of the northern front was mainly due to the exertion of the superiority of troops.
【Summary】
Objectively speaking, the scale and outcome of those four battles did not play a decisive role, and they were more like local battles intertwined by various unexpected factors. Although the ancient Chinese army lacked the opportunity to communicate with the outside world, it was quite a rare experience to be able to have such a confrontation.
Due to the scarcity of "quality conflicts", it is difficult to promote any improved operations, and even basic intelligence-gathering interest is rather lacking. If this is not true, then the overconfidence of the "Celestial Empire" may not have lasted until the 19th century. In short, it is the lack of enough collisions and challenges that leads to a state of overconfidence and a lack of motivation to improve.