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In 1900, after the Eight-Power Coalition launched a war of aggression against China, in the face of the extremely backward situation in Mongolia and the deep crisis in the northern frontier, many Han and Manchu officials in the ruling circles of the Qing Dynasty advocated radical reforms, and some of the more knowledgeable people in the princes of Mongolia who wanted to make a difference also advocated drastic reforms.
1. The origin of the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia
These people include Gongsang Norbu, the king of Karaqin County in Inner Mongolia, the king of Horqin County, Chuksulong, the prince of Horqin, Amur Linggui, the prince of Horqin, Bodisu, the prince of Korqin, the prince of Alashan, Doluo Speciallen, the prince of old Turghut County in Xinjiang, and Nayantu, the prince of the Sanyin Noyan tribe of Outer Mongolia.
The reform proposals put forward by these Mongolia princes mainly include:
To open up the wisdom of the people, popularize education, set up primary schools in Mongolia, and set up secondary schools, normal schools and even universities as appropriate, to learn Chinese and run newspapers in Chinese vernacular; limiting the number of lamas; set up factories and companies, develop industry and commerce, and develop mineral deposits; set up banks, railways, and post offices, and develop modern finance, transportation, and telecommunications; The Han people were allowed to cultivate the Mongolian land, develop agriculture and forestry according to local conditions, improve animal husbandry, and establish veterinary schools; Establish a new-style military school, organize and train a new-style Mongolian army, and establish patrol police: each banner will appoint a leader, clearly distinguish the scope of authority of the banner county, organize auxiliary leaders according to regions, and exempt ordinary Mongolian archers from personal affiliation with nobles, and so on.
Some of the reform proposals of these Mongolia princes are defective in divorce from reality, and they insist on safeguarding the original independent rights and interests of the Union Banner, only agreeing that large-scale projects and enterprises such as the Railway Bank and its representative organs should be set up, and that the power to set up other new policies should be exercised by the Union Banner, so they have obvious historical limitations.
The economic and social conditions and political system in Mongolia are different from those in the mainland, and the focus of the "New Deal" in the local area is very different from that in the mainland. In Mongolia, Outer Mongolia is more backward and borderline than Inner Mongolia, and the implementation of the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia is much slower than that of the "New Deal" in Inner Mongolia, and the content has also decreased.
The "New Deal" under the jurisdiction of Counsellor Kobdo and General Uriya Sutai has not improved much. In January 1902, Counsellor Ruixun of Kobdo went to the imperial court, saying that he planned to organize military training, land reclamation, animal husbandry, etc., and ordered that "proper funds should be raised first, and then they should be held in order to achieve practical results".
In December 1903, Ruixun said that "it is difficult to raise funds, and it is planned to suspend the pre-discussion of military training and animal husbandry." The edict criticized: "The lower part knows it." ”
In the past two years, in addition to routine work, Ruixun's work is to change the name of the original inspection Russian Business Bureau to the Foreign Affairs Bureau in accordance with the mainland's measures.
2. The content of the "New Deal" of Uriya Sutai
After the Qing government announced its intention to establish a constitution in 1906, Kobdo's "New Deal" made some progress.
In 1907, Kobdo organized and trained horse and artillery teams, and the Qing court ordered Yuan Shikai to allocate Mauser horse guns from the Beiyang New Army to meet emergency needs. In the same year, a patrol police was established in Kobdo. In the spring of 1908, preparations began for the establishment of a school, the development of cantonment, and the addition of a patrol team.
In December 1902, the Sino-Russian Bureau of Trade and Trade was established in the city of Sutai in Uriya. After the Gengzi Change, the Qing government was financially constrained, and in order to pay huge indemnities and raise various government funds, the Qing government demanded that local officials in Outer Mongolia collect taxes from merchants and citizens.
In May 1902, General Uriya Sutai Lian Shun said: "Uriya Sutai is a military camp place, and it is impossible to donate Ding Mu and house ointment", and it was agreed that the merchants would donate 3,000 taels of silver every year. The imperial court exempted the city from accepting donations because it was located on the border.
In June 1904, Lian Shun said that the relevant departments of the central government instructed to prepare for the establishment of department stores, and that Wucheng was located in a barren border and the merchants were in difficulty, and the collection of taxes would disturb the merchants and affect the development of commerce.
In June 1907, Uriya Sutai Counselor Kui Huan said that the Green Battalion had been selected as patrol officers to rectify the cigarette donations.
In February 1910, General Kun Xiu and others made a twist on the new policy plan of the jurisdiction, which proposed:
The proposed new policies in the Wucheng district are divided into four items.
Running a school: Wucheng belongs to the Khalkha West League of Mongolian people "simple and ugly, do not practice Chinese", and the Tangnu Wulianghai people belong to "sex and barbarism", must set up a school to open up the people's wisdom, and plan to create a junior normal school in Wucheng, set up Manchu, Mongolian, Chinese teachers each, recruit 40 bright children of the Sanyin Nuoyan and Zasaktu Khan Leagues, learn Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese; 5 students from Tangnu Ulianghai were recruited to learn Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese. These students are effective in their studies and will return to their home flag as teachers. It is planned to order the Sanyin Noyan and Zasaktu Khan leagues to each set up a Manchurian and Mongolian primary school in the league, recruiting 30 students each. Each flag of the two alliances has set up a Mongolian Yang School to teach the children of the banner to learn Mongolian characters.
Increase patrol police: Wucheng originally set up 40 patrol police, which could not meet the needs, and planned to add 20 more patrols.
Quit smoking: It is planned to set up a smoking cessation bureau in the temples and idle houses in the city, send opium smokers and businessmen into them to quit smoking, and at the same time investigate and punish the businessmen who carry tobacco and soil.
Establishment of a Chamber of Commerce: Guiding mainland businessmen in Wucheng to set up a "Chamber of Commerce Autonomous Office" to handle business and local public welfare affairs.
He proposed to set up a "New Deal Consular Office" and requested the branch to allocate 20,000 taels of silver every year. The regent did not immediately approve it, but only forwarded the new policy plan to the relevant departments for approval. The above is an overview of the implementation of the "New Deal" in the jurisdiction of General Uriya Sutai.
3. The content of Cullen's "New Deal".
Compared with the districts of the two generals and ministers of Kobdo and Uriya Sutai, the "new policy" of the Kulen office minister's district is much richer.
The new policy of the Khalkha East Second League can be divided into two periods, that is, the period before the term of office of the three more and the period of the term of office of the three more. In the period before Sanduo's tenure, although the "new policy" of the Khalkha East Second League was more advanced than that of the Western Second League and the Kobdo region, the progress was slow compared with the period of Sanduo's tenure.
In terms of economic development, the notable "New Deal" of the Kulen Chancellor's district during this period was the exploitation of gold mines in cooperation with the Russians.
In 1900, after the Qing government announced the closure of the Tu and Che alliances of mines and the cancellation of the right of the Russians to undertake gold mines due to the opposition of the local Mongolia princes, the Russians did not leave, they were still waiting in place, and there was a phenomenon of stealing gold mines.
In 1903, Collard came to Beijing and asked for the continuation of the gold mine. At this time, the Qing government fell into a financial crisis, and the call for opening up financial resources resounded all over the government and the opposition. Lian Shun, the general of Uriya Sutai, and Feng Sheng'a, the minister of the Kulun office, were in favor of allowing Ko Le to continue the business.
The Qing central government quickly approved it. Lian Shun and Feng Sheng'a jointly agreed on a gold mine charter, which emphasized that the move was the Chinese government's introduction of foreign capital and foreign technical personnel to develop its own resources, and that "it is always for China".
Soon after, the Russian "Mongolia Gold Mining Company" sent someone to replace Koled, and the Qing government resisted Russia's violation of China's sovereignty.
In 1906, Collard returned to Outer Mongolia. The Minister of Cullen, Yan Zhi and Kolde, redrafted the gold mine charter, stipulating that the gold mine would be financed and managed by Kroed, and the Chinese government would send officials to supervise it.
13.5% of the annual gold production goes to the Qing central government, 3% to the Mongolian banner where the gold mines are located, and the rest to the Russian companies represented by Kroed. Subsequently, the Qing government appointed the Minister of Kulun and the Deputy Minister as the Supervisor of Mines.
By 1911, there were six gold mines in Tushetu and Chechnya, employing nearly 10,000 Chinese and Russian workers, making it the largest gold mine established by the Chinese government with foreign capital in the late Qing Dynasty.
In the five years from 1906 to 1910, the central government of the Qing Dynasty obtained more than 460,000 taels of gold and silver, and more than 100,000 taels of gold in Mengqi, where the gold mine was located.
This helped to ease the financial difficulties of the Qing government, and also benefited the local Mongolian people.
The development of agricultural land in the Tushetu and Chechen alliances made little progress during this period.
There was a lot of cultivated land between Kulen and Kyakhta, and before the New Deal began, there were already some farmland privately cultivated by Mongolian princes and displaced people.
In March 1904, the Minister of Cullen proposed to set up a Reclamation Bureau to implement unified management of the reclamation work there. The Qing government also consulted the Tushetu and Chechen leagues on the development of agricultural reclamation, but the princes of the two leagues held negative opinions.
In January 1907, Yan Zhi, then the minister of affairs of Kulun, went to the imperial court, believing that the area was not suitable for agriculture, and only the construction of railways and the mining of gold mines had more advantages than disadvantages.
In the following two or three years, the agricultural reclamation of the Khalkha East League continued to stagnate.
On the commercial side, only taxes have been increased and regulations have been amended. In May 1902, Fengsheng Ah donated the shops of merchants in the interior of Kulun to business leaders, with a total annual payment of 24,000 taels of silver. In July 1909, Yanzhi revised Article 12 of the Commercial Management Regulations. In terms of education, in September 1908, Kulen set up a Mongolian school, which enrolled 40 students from three places, including Tushetu, Chechen and Shabi, to learn Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese languages.
In terms of health, in June 1909, a cowpox bureau was set up in Kulen, and a Russian doctor was hired to vaccinate the people against cowpox and treat miscellaneous diseases. At the same time, smoking cessation clinics were set up to prohibit opium smoking.
In 1909, Cullen had a post office set up by the Chinese, with four flights a week. In terms of transportation, in 1907, at the suggestion of Prince Shanqi of Yanzhi and Su, and deliberated by the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, the Qing government decided to extend the Beijing-Zhangjiakou railway to the north to Kulun and Kyakhta after the completion of the railway. It was just a plan, and there was no talk of implementation at the time.
On the military side, in July 1905, the then Minister of Kulun Affairs, Park Shou So, approved the training of a new battalion of new troops, and the funds were withdrawn from the donations and donations of the Kulun business.
During this period, a patrol force of 77 people was also established, together with 44 Xuanhua defense soldiers, to guard the law and order of Kulun City.
4. Sanduo "New Deal"
In November 1909, Yan Zhi, the minister of the Kulun office, was dismissed due to illness, and Sanduo, the deputy capital of the naturalized city, took over as the minister of the Kulun office (actually awarded in June 1911).
Sanduo is a native of Mongolia Zhengbai Banner, born in Hangzhou, born in Hangzhou, able to write poetry, good at calligraphy, and once served as the prefect of Hangzhou. He has lived and served as an official in the southeast coast and Beijing for a long time, and he has a relatively open-minded mind. He advocated radical reforms, was enthusiastic about the New Deal, and was eager to make a difference.
As early as when he was the deputy capital of Naturalized City, he repeatedly played and suggested that "half-day schools should be set up throughout the Mongolia area to enlighten wisdom"; select the former sons of the princes of Inner and Outer Mongolia to study in the army noble academy; He also pointed out that "the situation is becoming more urgent, the external troubles are deeper, and the difficulties of rectifying the Mongolian flag will be eased again."
He proposed a fundamental reform of the political system of Inner and Outer Mongolia, dividing the Inner and Outer Mongolia into four parts, of which Outer Mongolia was divided into two parts, the Khalkha East League was one part, the administrative office was set up in Kulen, the Western Second League and Kobdo were part and the administrative office was located in Uriya Sutai; Each ministry has a minister similar to the governor and general of the three eastern provinces, and it has 12 bureaus under it, such as policing, land reclamation, training, and negotiation: at the beginning of the establishment, each department allocated 1.2 million taels, and then reduced the appropriation year by year, and after five years, it was completely self-supporting and self-supporting.
The Qing court basically adopted his first two suggestions and rejected the latter.
The period when Sanduo was in charge of Kulun was the eve of the Xinhai Revolution. Under internal and external pressure, the Qing government intensively prepared for the constitution, and the original "New Deal" measures were also implemented more intensively and developed to some extent.
In August 1910, the Qing government approved the presentation of the Li Fan Ministry, officially lifting the old bans on Han people going out to cultivate land on the border, pawning Mongolian land, intermarrying with Mongolians, and Mongolian continuing to use inland scribes and using Chinese characters, marking the Qing government's official change in the policy of ethnic isolation in Mongolia.
Sanduo took over the Indian administration on March 11, 1910.
He was in charge of Cullen for nearly one year and nine months, of which only one and a half years were devoted to the implementation of the "New Deal". However, thanks to his positive attitude, the "New Deal" of the Khalkha East II League took on a new atmosphere.
There has been little progress in economic development. The gold mine continues to open, and a new mine is opened. In terms of farmland reclamation, Kulun and other places set up a general bureau and sub-bureaus of reclamation to manage the affairs of recruiting people and reclaiming land, and sent people to survey and reclaim land, and planned to grade the land reclamation of each banner of the Tushetu Khan Department, and in 1911, the barren silver was first collected and issued with a land certificate, and the land tax was levied from 1912.
Sanduo sent people to investigate the situation in Karen on the Sino-Russian border, and learned that "the east and west Karens to which Kulun belongs, the soldiers are old and weak, and the weapons are defeated; And the Karens on the Russian side, which are cultivated and livestocked, have all become villages, and even postal posts, banks, and schools are all attached to them, although each Karen garrison is no more than four or five hundred men, and in the event of an incident, such a gangster with a hoe and a hat, that is, a fierce enemy with a halberd, is invincible and inferior, and it is undeniable that he will be superior or inferior."
He believed that for the defense of the border, it would be difficult to garrison troops for a long time, and that immigration would be the solution once and for all. The land near Karen, to which Kulun belongs, is suitable for cultivation, and it is planned to send the new army trained to the vicinity of Karren to set up tuntian after being discharged. In view of the small number of retired soldiers in Kulen and the lack of urgency, he suggested that the veterans from the mainland should be repatriated to Tuntian.
The Qing government believed that the veterans in the interior were not accustomed to the water and soil of the frontier and did not know the benefits of reclamation, so they might not be willing to migrate, and the government lacked the necessary large amount of funds, so it could only be tried out by the new horse training team of Sanduo than Kulun after being discharged.
On the commercial side, Sanduo relocated a trading market for the vendors of West Kulun. The West Kulun area of Kulun City is the commercial center, and there are many wooden houses built by traders from the mainland, and Jebtsundamba holds a religious event "mandar" here every spring, and the Shabi Yamen repeatedly asks for the relocation on the grounds that the wooden houses hinder the Yellow Sect, and some ignorant lamas even spread rumors that the wooden houses must be burned down.
Sanduo led the Manchurian, Mongolian and Han officials to find another suitable place to be used as a market, moved the mainland traders in the wood-paneled houses in the West Kulun into it, and proposed to build six new houses in silver under the anti-smoking fine as a commodity display center, and at the same time designated the nearby vacant land as a livestock trading market. This measure facilitated the development of Coulomb's commerce.
In terms of transportation, the construction of the Zhangjiakou-Kyakhta railway became a hot topic in the whole country during this period, and the Senior Council passed a resolution in early 1911 to prepare for the Zhangjiatu railway as soon as possible.
Sanduo then made the same suggestion.
In view of the fact that Tsarist Russia might take advantage of the opportunity of revising the 1881 Sino-Russian "Revised Treaty" to claim the right to build the road from China, Sanduo proposed that the Qing government quickly send engineers to survey the route and erect signs, "first with its own form, and put an end to coveting".
Due to financial difficulties, the road was not built until the fall of the Qing Dynasty. In order to alleviate the difficulties of military transport from the interior to Kulun, the Qing Dynasty Military Advisory Office, at the request of Sanduo, decided to allocate some automobiles to engage in transportation between Beijing and Kulun, and Sanduo sent people to survey the automobile routes in the Kulen area.
5. The continuation of the "New Deal" of Sanduo
In order to train urgently needed translators, Sanduo selected six students from the Kulun Mongol School and sent them to the schools set up by the Russian Consulate to learn Russian, and set up simple literacy schools in Kulen and Kyakhta respectively to provide amateur literacy education.
According to the requirements of the Ministry of Civil Affairs of the Qing Dynasty to set up a health bureau, Sanduo re-established the cowpox bureau that had been temporarily suspended before Yanzhi and changed it to a health bureau, and also added a health bureau in Xikulun.
The anti-smoking campaign continues. Sanduo incorporated the anti-smoking office into the Health Bureau, and doctors distributed smoking cessation drugs to drug addicts, ordered the closure of commercial "tobacco rooms" in Kulen City that provided special conditions for drug use, burned smoking equipment, levied heavy taxes on opium shops and smokers, and ordered the number of opium sold and smoked to be reduced month by month.
At the same time, the flags of the Turkish and Chezhou alliances were instructed to effectively crack down on opium and investigate and deal with illegal businessmen who smuggled opium into the country. In view of the sluggishness of the Mongolia station and the delay in delivery, Sanduo requested permission to set up a Kulun Wen Bao Office in Beijing to ensure the timely transmission of official documents between Kulen and Beijing.
According to the nine-year plan for the implementation of constitutional government, the Qing government stipulated the constitutional preparations that should be made by the feudal officials in various localities, and the establishment of consultation bureaus to implement local autonomy was the first priority.
Sanduo's predecessor, Yanzhi, believed that it would be difficult for Outer Mongolia to establish an advisory bureau to exercise local autonomy without qualified legislators for the time being, but he was very concerned about other preparations for constitutionalism. In addition to establishing education, he also conducted statistics on the number of households in the district, the total annual income and expenditure, and tried to compile the 1911 budget.
It is also planned to abolish the original criminal division and the chief inspectors, set up trial halls and procuratorial offices in Kulen and Kyakhta, and establish new-style judicial organs. There are two sources of funding, one is the funds vacated by the abolition of the penal division and other personnel, and the other is the levy of carts, packers, wood, and charcoal.
The 77 patrol officers in Kulun City were uneducated and of poor quality, so Sanduo appointed Jueluo Mingyou, a graduate of the Patrol Police Academy of the Ministry of Civil Affairs, as a police officer of the Kulun Jiupin Police Department and asked them to train them.
In the last years of the Qing Dynasty, the economy of Outer Mongolia withered, and "Mongolia was in distress and in debt." In addition to the fact that natural resources have not been properly exploited, natural disasters are frequent, merchants are exploited, and taxes and forced labor are heavy, the local officials are indiscriminate.
The official salaries of Qing officials were very low, office expenses were very small, and the central government was resigned to the various apportionments of local officials. When the Kulen minister Yamen allocated the apportionment to the various league flags, the phenomenon of excessive apportionment was inevitable, and the alliance flags "violated the rules and regulations and gathered all the others, and they often became accustomed to each other."
After Sanduo took office, he sorted out all kinds of apportionments, and determined the apportionment limit for repairing the items added by the Yamen when the officials of the various yamen in Kulun were transferred, stipulating that the fuel and food (firewood, charcoal, and sheep) needed by the yamen could be purchased from the flags at official prices according to the quota, and the rest of the items such as repairing the yamen and the equipment used by the government at any time were to be prepared by the officials themselves.
At the same time, it is necessary to raise the salaries of officials in the treasury. There were about 30 officials in Kuman, Menghan, and the total monthly income was originally more than 10,200 taels, but it was increased to more than 22,300 taels, and the expenses were to be settled by the income from the gold mines and various commercial taxes.
Sanduo also demanded that the Shabi Yamen report the annual apportionment and write-off accounts, and to restrict the behavior of the Lamaist monasteries in harsh on the Mongols.
In order to better handle Kulun's foreign affairs work, Sanduo set up a negotiation section in the Yamen of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Kulun, and officials sent by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs handled foreign affairs.
6. The Military "New Deal" of the Mansion in the Sky
The establishment of the armament department and the preparation and training of the new army are the most eye-catching items in the "new policy" run by Sanduo.
The original garrison under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Kulen was a battalion of the Xuanhua Horse Corps, which was stationed in Kulen, Kyakhta and various gold mines, and also divided troops to suppress the bandits that appeared in the territory from time to time. The strength of the army is weak.
Soon after Sanduo took office, he recruited 105 simple mainland youths and established a "patrol infantry team" to assist the Xuanhua battalion in defending Kulun. The team was under the command of the newly established Kulun Battalion Office, and Sanduo appointed Gu Baoheng, the general office of the Kulen Telegraph Bureau and Gu Baoheng, the alternate magistrate of Zhili, as the general office of the Camp Office.
The annual fund of the team was 10,920 taels, of which the mainland merchants of Kulen donated 10,000 taels of silver every year, and more than 920 taels of public funds were allocated to Sanduo.
The Xuanhua Horse Brigade is an old-style army, with only one battalion, and the patrol infantry team is a militia. Kulen is an important frontier town, and Sanduo believes that it is necessary to build a new army in order to "consolidate national defense and secure the opposite side". He asked for permission to set up the Kulen Garrison Office to prepare for the training of the new army. The Military Advisory Office in Beijing appointed Tang Zaili as the general office of the Military Garrison Department.
Tang Zaili graduated from the Japan Non-commissioned Officer School and served as the head office of the Instructor Office. At the end of January 1911, he arrived in Kulen. The original battalion office of Kulun was reorganized, and the officers and men of the Xuanhua battalion, the patrol infantry team, the military affairs of the Second Khalkha East Alliance, and the station Karen were all under the control of the military garrison department.
Brigadier General Sanduo was supposed to hand over more than 190,000 taels of gold mining taxes to the central government in 1910 and withheld them as training funds. In June 1911, the new army of Kulen consisted of two parts: a horse team and a machine gun battalion. The second team of the horse team, recruited from the two leagues; The second team of the machine artillery battalion, one team recruited young people from the mainland in Kulun, and the other team recruited Suiyuan Eight Banner soldiers.
Due to changes in the situation in Outer Mongolia, not a single soldier of the new army was trained. What Tang Zaili led more than 100 people to Kulun to do was to build a new-style barracks in Mao Duqing, a suburb of Kulun, with more than 400 houses.
7. The impact of the "New Deal".
The content of the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia at the end of the Qing Dynasty was to develop the local economy and education, develop a modern military force, strengthen national defense construction, and improve politics and customs.
The primary motive of the Qing ruling circles in implementing the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia was to consolidate and continue its rule there, and these "New Deal" measures also promoted the economic and social development of Outer Mongolia.
Sanduo made useful contributions to the "New Deal" of the Khalkha East Alliance, and at the same time, his "New Deal" measures inevitably increased the burden on the local Mongolia.
Sanduoli eliminated the accumulated shortcomings and determined the quota of materials to be apportioned to each banner when the subordinate yamen repair office added materials, which has not yet been discussed in the two places of Uriya Sutai and Kobdo. However, Sanduo vigorously implemented the "new policy" and set up a large number of new organs in Ukraine and the two departments.
Sanduo tries not to increase the direct burden of Mengqi. The patrol brigade, the health bureau, and the simple literacy school are mainly funded by donations from merchants, commercial taxes, and gold miners' contributions. The training of the new army is financed by a commission of income from the gold mines and handed over to the state. However, according to the custom, the office buildings of these newly added organs, including the barracks of the new army, must be built free of charge by the local flags, the office equipment must be provided free of charge, and the living materials of the newly added officers and soldiers must be purchased from the flags at the prices determined by the authorities.
This is a considerable burden on the local Mongolian people. The local princes did not have the consciousness to sacrifice some of their immediate interests for the long-term interests of the country, and these "New Deal" measures aroused the dissatisfaction of the local princes and high-ranking monks, and intensified their contradictions with the Qing government.
The social changes caused by the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia are far less drastic than those caused by the "New Deal" in Inner Mongolia. Measures such as large-scale reclamation, a large number of Han peasants, and the establishment of prefectures and counties have not been implemented in Outer Mongolia. Compared with Inner Mongolia, the "New Deal" has not made much progress in Outer Mongolia.
However, the economic ties between Outer Mongolia and Chinese mainland are relatively weak, many princes are old-fashioned, this place is the exclusive sphere of influence of Russia, coupled with geographical conditions and other factors that make it easier for Russia to exert decisive influence on the local situation; the Russian government's many years of infiltration and irrigation have caused many princes to have serious centrifugal tendencies, and even formed pro-Russian factions; the ability of the Chinese central government to control the area is very weak, so that those princes and high-ranking monks who have bad intentions have no fear and dare to embark on the road of splitting the country.
The "New Deal" of Outer Mongolia can be said to be the fuse of Outer Mongolia's independence.
The Jebtsundamba group saw the changes taking place in Inner Mongolia and foresaw that their political and economic interests would be harmed by the continued implementation of the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia, so when the implementation of the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia had just accelerated, they united to resist it, and the long-term strong influence of the Russian invaders made them move from opposing the "New Deal" to plotting for independence.
Of course, the emergence of Outer Mongolia "independence" into public action came to the fore at a time when the Qing regime was about to collapse, and the political changes in China had a greater impact on the Jebtsundamba group's decision to "become independent" than the "new policy" in Outer Mongolia.
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