At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the movement of "changing the land and returning to the stream" in the Sichuanbian region was of epoch-making significance in the modern history of Sichuan and the modern history of the Tibetan people. The fuse of this change began in the 30th year of Guangxu "Batang Fengquan was killed". The murder of Feng Quan, the new deputy minister in Tibet, in Batang shocked the government and the public. The Qing court then dispatched Ma Weiqi, the governor of Sichuan, and Zhao Erfeng, the military governor, to deal with the matter. However, the situation did not stop there. After Zhao Erfeng put down the Batang Rebellion, he faced an even more difficult challenge - the "Battle of Sampi Temple". This battle, which lasted for half a year, not only tested Zhao Erfeng's military talent, but also became the key to his reputation in the Sichuanbian area. What exactly caused Feng Quan's murder? How did Zhao Erfeng break through the difficulties in the "Battle of Sangpi Temple" and finally achieve victory? What impact did this battle have on the transformation of the Tibetan areas along the Sichuan border?
1. The causes and consequences of Feng Quan's murder
In the thirtieth year of Guangxu (1904), the Qing court appointed Feng Quan as the deputy minister in Tibet. After Feng Quan arrived in Batang, he did not immediately go to Lhasa to take up his post, but decided to stay in Batang temporarily. Batang is located at the junction of Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet provinces, and is the throat of the Sichuan-Tibet Avenue, and its strategic position is very important. Feng Quan believes that by staying here, he can better control the situation and prepare for a future trip to Tibet.
However, Feng Quan's arrival did not bring peace and tranquility to Batang. As soon as he arrived in Batang, he began to implement a series of reform measures that seriously affected the interests of local temples and tusi. First of all, Feng Quan proposed to train troops in Batang and recruit peasants in the Guannei to settle here. This move was intended to strengthen the Qing Dynasty's control over Batang, but also to solve the local food problem. However, this will undoubtedly weaken the power of the toasts and cause them to be dissatisfied.
Secondly, Feng Quan tried to limit the number of monks in the temple. At that time, the temple was powerful and the monks were numerous. Feng Quan believes that too many monks are not only detrimental to local development, but can also become a potential destabilizing factor. This policy directly violated the interests of the temple and caused strong opposition from the monks.
In addition, Feng Quan also interfered in local government affairs in an attempt to weaken Tusi's power. Although these measures were seen by Feng Quan as an attempt to strengthen the central government's control over the local government, in the eyes of the locals, they were a serious disruption of the traditional order.
Feng Quan's personality was also an important factor in the deterioration of the situation. According to records, Feng Quan had a perverse and rude personality, and when he was in the Guannei, he called himself "Feng Laozi" and was abusive. After arriving in Batang, he often insulted the local officials, the Tusi and the lamas, which further exacerbated the conflict.
The turning point of events occurred in mid-February of the 31st year of Guangxu (1905). The Khenpo Dam Gezhuge of Dinglin Monastery instigated the people of Qicungou to loot the reclamation field and wash and kill the reclamation people. Feng Quan sent troops to block it, but was strongly resisted. The riots escalated and the participants grew. When passing through Dinglin Monastery, the lamas in the temple opened fire on the Qing soldiers, and the Qing soldiers immediately attacked Dinglin Monastery, killing and wounding more than ten lamas.
This incident completely angered the local population and the monks. On February 28, Ba Ge Zhuge gathered more than 3,500 people, stormed the city of Batang, and killed Wu Yizhong, the secretary of Batang, and Qin Zongfan, a member of the committee. Feng Quan's guards suffered heavy casualties, and he himself was forced to take refuge in the village of Batang Zheng Tusi Luo Jinbao.
Luo Jinbao was ostensibly protecting Feng Quan, but in fact he was secretly planning to frame him. He pretended to negotiate with the besieging masses, claiming that as long as Feng Quan and the others left Batang, everyone would withdraw. Feng Quan was forced by the situation and had to agree to this condition.
On 1 March, Feng Quan led the remaining 50 people to leave Batang. However, this is actually a trap. At Parrot's Mouth, five miles away from Batang, the locals have already set up an ambush. It is a narrow canyon with steep terrain on both sides. When Feng Quan and his party entered the ambush area, rolling stones fell like a shower. Feng Quan and his entourage were defenseless and were wiped out in an instant.
When the news of Feng Quan's death was heard back to the imperial court, the court was shocked. The fact that a feudal official of the second rank was killed in the frontier was not only a serious challenge to the prestige of the Qing court, but also exposed a serious problem in the governance of the Sichuanbian region. The Qing court realized that if it did not take strong measures, not only would it not be able to quell the Batang Rebellion, but it would also lead to more widespread unrest.
2. The initial response of the Qing court
When the news of Feng Quan's murder reached Beijing, the imperial court was furious. This was not only a serious challenge to the prestige of the imperial court, but also exposed the deep-seated problems in the governance of the Sichuanbian region. The Qing court was well aware that if it did not take swift and tough measures, not only would it not be able to quell the Batang Rebellion, but it would also lead to more widespread unrest. Therefore, the imperial court decided to take immediate action.
First, the Qing court ordered Ma Weiqi, the governor of Sichuan, to lead his army to Batang to quell the rebellion. Ma Weiqi was stationed in Taining (present-day Yajiang County, Sichuan Province), close to Batang. However, Ma Weiqi did not act immediately after receiving the order. He believed that "the clamoring of the people was not enough to worry" and was reluctant to send troops. This decision led to a further aggravation of the situation.
Ma Weiqi's hesitation gave the Batang rebels more time to organize and grow. They used this time to strengthen their defenses and began to spread their influence into the surrounding areas. By the time Ma Weiqi finally realized the gravity of the situation and arrived with his army, the rebellion had spread to a wider area.
After Ma Weiqi led his army to Batang, he immediately launched a military operation. However, due to insufficient preparations, coupled with an underestimation of the local terrain and the strength of the rebels, Ma Weiqi's military operation did not go well. The rebels took advantage of the terrain and adopted guerrilla tactics, causing a lot of trouble to the Qing army.
Seeing that Ma Weiqi could not quickly quell the rebellion, the Qing court decided to send more experienced generals to deal with the matter. As a result, the imperial court appointed Zhao Erfeng as the Minister of Sichuan Frontier Affairs to supervise the Sichuan-Yunnan Frontier Affairs. Zhao Erfeng previously had extensive governance experience in Xinjiang and was considered the best candidate to quell the Batang Rebellion.
After Zhao Erfeng received the order, he immediately began to prepare. He was well aware of the enormity of the task, so he made full preparations before setting off. First, he carefully studied the geographical, ethnic, and historical situation of the Kawasabe region to prepare for the development of a suitable strategy. Secondly, he carefully selected a group of right-hand men, including Fu Songwei, who later played an important role in the "Battle of Sampi Temple".
After Zhao Erfeng led his army to Batang, he first conducted a detailed investigation of the local situation. He found that the Batang Rebellion was not just a simple rebellion, but also had complex ethnic and religious factors behind it. Zhao Erfeng realized that the problem could not be completely solved by force alone, and political and economic means were also needed.
Based on this understanding, Zhao Erfeng formulated the strategy of "focusing on suppression, supplemented by fu". On the one hand, he intensified military pressure and dealt a severe blow to the rebels who were stubbornly resisting. On the other hand, he also tried to negotiate with some of the more moderate Tusi and temple leaders in an attempt to divide and break up the rebellion.
Zhao's strategy soon paid off. Some tusi and temples began to cooperate with the Qing army, providing intelligence and logistical support. This greatly weakened the strength of the rebels and also facilitated the military operations of the Qing army.
In terms of military action, Zhao Erfeng adopted a steady and steady strategy. Instead of launching a large-scale offensive, he first occupied strategic points and cut off the supply lines of the rebels. At the same time, he also paid attention to the pacification of the local people, strictly forbade soldiers to harass the people, and distributed food and supplies in a timely manner, which won the support of many people.
After months of hard work, the Batang Rebellion was finally put down. The main rebel leaders were arrested or fled, and order was restored in most areas. However, Zhao Erfeng is well aware that this is only the beginning of the Kawabe problem, and the real challenge is still to come.
While Zhao Erfeng was busy dealing with Batang affairs, an even bigger threat was quietly forming. The fugitive rebel leader Shiro Zhan gathered a large number of armed forces at Samphi Temple in the rural city of Sangphi in an attempt to make a comeback. This laid the groundwork for the later "Battle of Sampi Temple".
In the process of quelling the Batang Rebellion, Zhao Erfeng gradually figured out the complex situation in the Sichuanbian area. He realized that comprehensive reforms were necessary to solve the problem once and for all. This was the prototype of the famous "Changing the Land and Returning to the Stream" movement. Zhao Erfeng began to work on a detailed reform plan to be fully implemented after the rebellion was put down.
However, the development of the situation did not give Zhao Erfeng much respite. Just as he was about to begin implementing reforms, the "Battle of Samphi Monastery" broke out. This battle, which lasted for more than half a year, was not only a great test of Zhao Erfeng's military talent, but also a major challenge to the Qing Dynasty's ability to rule the Sichuanbian region.
3. The outbreak and course of the "Battle of Sampi Temple".
With the Batang Rebellion subsided, Zhao Erfeng had hoped to begin his reform program. However, the situation did not develop as he hoped. Just as he was about to begin implementing reforms, an even more intense conflict erupted in the rural city of Samphi Monastery. This conflict, which came to be known as the "Battle of Samphi Temple", was not only a major test of Zhao Erfeng's military talents, but also a serious challenge to the Qing Dynasty's ability to rule the Sichuanbian region.
The trigger for the "Battle of Sampi Temple" can be traced back to Shiro Zhan, a rebel leader who fled during the Batang Rebellion. After Shiro Zhan fled to the countryside, he gathered a large number of armed forces at the local Sampi Temple in an attempt to make a comeback. Located about 20 miles northwest of the township, Samphi Monastery is one of the largest Gelugpa monasteries in the region, with a long history and deep influence. Shirouzhan chose to rally forces here for geographical, religious, and political reasons.
When Zhao Erfeng learned of this situation, he immediately realized the danger. If Shiro Zhan is allowed to sit in Samphi Temple, it will not only pose a threat to the newly pacified Batang, but may also cause more widespread unrest. Therefore, Zhao Erfeng decided to take decisive action.
In August of the 32nd year of Guangxu (1906), Zhao Erfeng sent his right-hand man Fu Songwei to lead 1,500 Qing troops to Sangpi Temple. Fu Songwei was an experienced general with extensive combat experience in Xinjiang and the Sichuanbian region. Zhao Erfeng had high hopes for him, hoping that he would be able to quickly solve the problem of Samphi Temple.
However, the development of events is far more complicated than Zhao Erfeng and Fu Songwei expected. When the Qing army arrived at the monastery, they found that about 5,000 armed monks and local people had gathered in the temple. These people, under the leadership of Shiro Zhan, transformed Samphi Temple into a strong fortress. A tall wall was built around the monastery, and artillery was set up at key points. The Qing army was no longer faced with a rabble, but with a well-organized and well-equipped armed force.
Fu Songwei initially tried to resolve the issue through negotiations, sending someone to convey the Qing court's edict to the temple, demanding that Shiro Zhan and the other rebel leaders surrender. However, this attempt was categorically rejected. Shiro Zhan not only refused to surrender, but also threatened to drive the Qing army out of the Sichuanbian area.
After the negotiations broke down, Fu Songwei decided to take military action. He ordered his troops to launch an assault on Samphi Monastery. However, the first attack met with stubborn resistance. The fortifications inside the temple were far stronger than expected, and the morale of the defenders was high. The Qing army suffered heavy losses in the offensive and was forced to retreat.
This defeat made Fu Songwei realize that he could not capture Samphi Monastery with his current forces alone. He immediately reported the battle situation to Zhao Erfeng and asked for reinforcements. After receiving the report, Zhao Erfeng immediately mobilized more troops and artillery and personally rushed to the front line to command.
After Zhao Erfeng arrived, he reformulated the battle plan. He decided to adopt siege tactics to cut off the supply lines of Samphi Monastery, and at the same time intensify artillery bombardment to gradually break the will of the defenders of the monastery to resist. This strategy, although it took longer, minimized the casualties of the Qing army.
After the siege began, the two sides fell into a long standoff. The Qing army built a strong defensive line around the temple, tightly sealing off all access to and from the monastery. At the same time, the artillery of the Qing army bombarded the monastery day and night in an attempt to destroy the fortifications inside the monastery.
However, resistance within the temple was far more stubborn than expected. Shiro Zhan and other leaders took advantage of the complex terrain of the temple to organize an effective defense. They also organized small-scale raids from time to time to harass the positions of the Qing army, causing a lot of trouble to the Qing army.
Over time, the effects of the siege became apparent. Food and ammunition began to run out of food and ammunition inside the temple, and the morale of the defenders began to waver. Some young monks and civilians began to sneak out of the monastery and surrender to the Qing army. These surrenderers provided valuable information that gave the Qing army a clearer picture of the situation inside the temple.
By February of the 33rd year of Guangxu (1907), the situation of Sangpi Temple had become precarious. Food is almost exhausted, and there is little ammunition left. Shiro Zhan realized that there was no point in continuing to resist, but he was still unwilling to surrender. On a dark and windy night, Shiro Zhan led a small team of elites to break out and disappear into the vast snow-capped mountains.
After Shiro Zhan escaped, resistance in the temple quickly collapsed. Early the next morning, the remaining defenders laid down their arms and surrendered to the Qing army. At this point, the "Battle of Sampi Temple", which lasted for half a year, finally came to an end.
The victory in this battle not only consolidated the Qing Dynasty's rule in the Sichuanbian region, but also cleared the way for Zhao Erfeng's subsequent "Reform the Land and Return to the River" movement. However, Shirozhan's escape also leaves a hidden danger for the future. Zhao Erfeng knows that only by completely changing the governance method of the Sichuanbian region can the problem be fundamentally solved. Therefore, immediately after the end of the war, he embarked on a comprehensive reform program.
Fourth, Zhao Erfeng's "change the land and return to the stream" movement
With the victory of the "Battle of Sampi Temple", Zhao Erfeng was finally able to devote himself to the movement of "changing the land and returning to the stream" that he had planned for a long time. This movement was not only a major change in the way the Qing Dynasty ruled the Sichuanbian region, but also a comprehensive reform that profoundly affected the region's politics, economy, and culture.
Zhao Erfeng's "Reform the Land and Return to the Stream" movement began in March of the 33rd year of Guangxu (1907). He first started a pilot project in Batang and gradually rolled it out to the entire Sichuanbian area. The core elements of this movement included the abolition of the Tusi system and the establishment of direct rule; the implementation of the legal and administrative system of the Han nationality; encouraging Han Chinese immigrants; development of agriculture and commerce; Promote Chinese language education, etc.
The abolition of the Tusi system is the primary task of the "Reform the Land and Return to the Stream" movement. As an indirect way of ruling the border areas of the Qing Dynasty, the Tusi system played an important role in maintaining local stability. Over time, however, the shortcomings of this system have become increasingly apparent. The Tusi often abused their power, oppressed the people, and even colluded with foreign forces to threaten the rule of the Qing Dynasty.
Zhao Erfeng adopted a gradual strategy to abolish the Tusi system. He began by awarding rewards to the toasts who had performed well in the Battle of Sampi Monastery, while suggesting that they voluntarily renounce their hereditary privileges. For those who stubbornly resisted, Zhao Erfeng took tough measures, even at the expense of using force.
For example, when the Batang Tusi was abolished, Zhao Erfeng encountered strong opposition. The local Tusi refused to relinquish power and incited the population to revolt. Zhao Erfeng decisively sent troops to suppress it, arrested Tusi, and made an example of the local chickens and monkeys, demonstrating the determination of the Qing Dynasty. The incident caused a great shock in the local area, and also made other toasts see the consequences of resisting reform.
With the abolition of the Tusi system, Zhao Erfeng began to implement the Qing Dynasty's administrative system in the Sichuanbian region. He reorganized the original Tusi jurisdiction into prefectures and counties, and set up officials such as Zhizhou and Zhixian, who were directly appointed by the imperial court. Most of these officials were experienced Han Chinese officials who brought advanced administrative ideas and management methods.
In order to cooperate with the new administrative system, Zhao Erfeng also implemented a series of legal reforms. He abolished some local bad customs, such as human sacrifice and burial of living people, and introduced the legal system of the Qing Dynasty. Although this reform caused some backlash in the short term, in the long run, it laid the foundation for the rule of law in the Kawabian region.
On the economic front, Zhao Erfeng has taken a number of measures to promote local economic development. He encouraged Han businessmen to do business in the Sichuanbian area and provided them with various preferential policies. At the same time, he also organized the construction of roads, improved transportation conditions, and promoted economic ties between the Sichuan border region and the interior.
Agricultural reform is another important aspect of Zhao Erfeng's movement to "change the land and return it to the stream." He introduced advanced agricultural techniques and crop varieties from the interior, such as corn and potatoes, which greatly improved local agricultural productivity. In addition, Zhao Erfeng also carried out land reform, distributing a large amount of idle monastic land and tusi land to ordinary farmers, which greatly mobilized the peasants' enthusiasm for production.
Education reform is one of the most far-reaching parts of the movement. Zhao Erfeng knew that in order to completely change the appearance of the Sichuanbian region, it was necessary to start with education. He opened schools in various places and made Chinese language education compulsory. These schools not only teach the Chinese language, but also disseminate knowledge of Chinese culture and cultivate students' "national identity".
For example, in Batang, Zhao Erfeng personally supervised a new-style school. This school is not only for Han students, but also for collector students. In addition to teaching basic courses such as Chinese language and arithmetic, the school also offers courses such as history and geography to help students understand the history and territory of the Qing Dynasty. Although this educational model caused some controversy at the time, it cultivated a group of local talents familiar with Han culture in the Sichuanbian area, and laid the foundation for subsequent reforms.
Zhao Erfeng's campaign also included a push for Han Chinese immigration. He believes that only when a large number of Han people enter the Sichuanbian area can the local demographic structure and cultural outlook be fundamentally changed. To this end, he formulated a series of policies to encourage immigration, such as providing free land and tax exemptions. These policies attracted a large number of Han Chinese farmers and merchants to the Sichuanbian area, gradually changing the local demographic composition.
However, the campaign has not been without its challenges. Many of the reforms have met with strong opposition from the local population, especially religious forces. For example, the abolition of the practice of burial of the living was resisted by some religious leaders. They see it as a destruction of traditional culture. In the face of these oppositions, Zhao Erfeng took a hard-line attitude and insisted on carrying out reforms.
Despite facing many difficulties and obstacles, Zhao Erfeng's campaign to "change the land and return to the stream" still achieved remarkable results. By the end of the 34th year of Guangxu (1908), most of the Sichuan border had completed the transformation from the Tusi system to the state and county system. The number of Han immigrants has increased dramatically, the economy has begun to recover, and new forms of education are gradually being promoted. This movement not only changed the face of the Sichuanbian region, but also laid a new foundation for Qing rule in the southwestern frontier.
5. The impact and evaluation of Zhao Erfeng's reform
Although Zhao Erfeng's campaign to "change the land and return to the river" in the Sichuanbian area lasted only a few years, its impact was far-reaching and long-lasting. This reform not only changed the political, economic and social outlook of the Sichuan border region, but also had a profound impact on the frontier governance policy in the last years of the Qing Dynasty.
At the political level, Zhao Erfeng's reforms completely changed the pattern of governance in the Sichuanbian region. The abolition of the Tusi system and the establishment of the prefecture and county system enabled the Qing central government to directly administer the region, greatly enhancing the central government's control over the frontier. For example, before the reform, the Tusi in the Batang region were almost the rulers of an independent kingdom, and it was difficult for the Qing government to administer them effectively. After the reform, Batang set up a county government, which was governed by the county governor directly appointed by the imperial court, and the efficiency of local administration was significantly improved.
However, this model of direct domination also presents new challenges. Due to a lack of in-depth knowledge of local culture and customs, some newly appointed Han Chinese officials often make mistakes in handling local affairs. For example, in the Derge region, a new magistrate forcibly interfered in the affairs of the monastery because he did not understand the local religious customs, causing a riot of considerable proportions. These events are a reminder of the need to respect and understand local cultural traditions in parallel with reforms.
On the economic front, Zhao Erfeng's reforms injected new vitality into the Sichuanbian region. By encouraging Han Chinese merchants to enter, improving transportation conditions, and introducing new agricultural technologies, the economic landscape of the Sichuanbian region has undergone significant changes. In Litang, for example, before the reform, there were only a few small-scale tea and horse markets. After the reform, Litang gradually developed into an important commercial center, not only with goods from the mainland, but also some modern forms of commerce, such as silver trumpets and postal services.
However, economic development has also brought some negative consequences. With the influx of Han Chinese merchants, some local merchants went bankrupt because they could not compete. At the same time, the new economic model has also impacted the traditional mode of production. In the Mangkang region, for example, the traditional nomadic economy has gradually declined due to the development of agriculture, which has caused dissatisfaction among some herders.
In terms of social and cultural aspects, Zhao Erfeng's reforms had the most far-reaching impact on the Sichuanbian region. Through the promotion of Chinese language education and the encouragement of Han immigrants, the cultural landscape of the Sichuanbian region has gradually changed. The establishment of the new-style school has cultivated a group of intellectuals who have received modern education for the local area. These people later became an important bridge between Han and Tibetan culture.
However, the cultural reform also sparked some controversy. Some religious leaders and local elites believe that over-promotion of Han culture will lead to the demise of local culture. In the Chaya region, there have been incidents of monks boycotting the new style of school. These responses reflect the complex question of balancing unity and diversity in the implementation of cultural reforms.
Zhao Erfeng's reforms had a profound impact on the Qing Dynasty's frontier policy. His successful experience has been extended to other border areas, such as Xinjiang and Yunnan. In Xinjiang, for example, the Qing government followed Zhao Erfeng's example and tightened its control over local religious forces and implemented new policies. This marked the transformation of the Qing Dynasty's frontier policy from the traditional policy of fetters to a modern mode of direct rule.
However, Zhao's reforms have also exposed some problems. First of all, the implementation of the reform was too rapid and did not fully take into account the actual situation on the ground. In the Kangding area, some of the measures imposed have sparked strong resentment among the local population and even led to some small-scale resistance. Second, the reform has relied too much on force, and although it has achieved results in the short term, it has also buried hidden dangers in long-term contradictions.
The evaluation of Zhao Erfeng's reform has always been the focus of debate in academic circles. Proponents argue that his reforms laid the groundwork for the modernization of the Kawasbian region, increasing central control over the frontier. For example, the roads he built in Kangding not only promoted economic development, but also strengthened military defense capabilities. Opponents argue that his reforms have undermined local traditional culture and exacerbated ethnic contradictions. In the Lijiang area, some of the enforced sinicization policies sparked discontent among local ethnic minorities, which continued into the Republican period.
In the long run, Zhao Erfeng's reforms had a profound impact on the Sichuanbian region. It has accelerated the modernization process of the region and promoted the exchange and integration of Sino-Tibetan cultures. For example, the establishment of a new style of school under the impetus of reform has cultivated a group of talents who understand both Chinese and local culture, and these people have played an important role in the later historical development. At the same time, the reforms have also changed the geopolitical landscape of the Sichuanbian region and strengthened the central government's control over the region, which is of great significance for maintaining national unity.
However, some of the coercive practices in Zhao Erfeng's reforms have also left some negative impacts on the local society. In some areas, the contradictions and conflicts caused by the reforms continued into later historical periods. This reminds us of the need to take more into account the realities on the ground and to adopt a more flexible and incremental approach when implementing reforms.