At the end of the 13th century, the power structure of the Mongolia Empire was undergoing a quiet but profound transformation. With the accession of Kublai Khan to the throne and the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, the Han army, as the backbone of his seizure of power, was supposed to occupy an important position in the new imperial court. However, in just a few decades, the once highly decorated Han soldiers were gradually replaced by Semu soldiers and reduced to the marginal power of the imperial court. What are the power struggles and political considerations behind this dramatic shift?
The Mongolia Empire was divided and Kublai Khan's power rose
In 1259, the Mongolia Empire ushered in an important turning point. During the attack on the Southern Song Dynasty, Möngke Khan was accidentally killed on the front line of Diaoyu City in Sichuan.
This sudden change, like a boulder thrown into a calm lake, stirred up ripples and broke the original balance of power in the Mongolia Empire. Möngke Khan's death not only brought an abrupt halt to the ongoing conquest of the Southern Song Dynasty, but also triggered a fierce power struggle within the Mongolia Empire.
With the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongolia Empire quickly split into two factions. On one side is Ali Buge, who represents the traditional forces of the Mongolia steppe in northern Mobei, and on the other side is Kublai Khan, who has long ruled the Central Plains.
The two members of the royal family each represented different interest groups and political philosophies. Ali Buge, as the younger brother of Möngke, should inherit the position of the Great Khan according to the Mongolia tradition of "young sons guarding the stove".
This tradition stems from the survival rules of the Mongolia steppe, where the father usually leaves most of the family property to his young son in order to survive in the harsh environment. It was on the basis of this tradition that Ali Buge gained the support of the majority of Mongolia, especially the main forces that Möngke brought to the front.
At the same time, Kublai Khan, as the second brother of Möngke, although he was at a disadvantage in terms of inheritance, he had other advantages. His long experience in governing the Central Plains allowed Kublai Khan to gain the support of the host kings who tended to be sinicized.
The fiefdoms of these host kings were in close proximity to the Han Dynasty and maintained close economic ties with the Central Plains. Out of interest considerations, they chose Kublai Khan, who was more able to understand and adapt to the culture of the Central Plains.
However, things are not as simple as they seem. Although Kublai Khan had the support of the host kings, there were limits to this support.
After all, these host kings were brothers and relatives of Genghis Khan, and they always maintained a "listen to the tune and not listen to the announcement" attitude towards the Great Khan of Mongolia. Kublai Khan's control over them was limited, and this delicate relationship set the stage for future political developments.
In terms of military strength, Kublai Khan and Ali Buge each had advantages. Ali Buge controlled the main force that Möngke brought to the front, which was undoubtedly a formidable military force.
And Kublai Khan, although he also had a large army, the situation was more complicated. Most of the Mongolia army was not directly subordinate to him, and most of the "Tanma Red Army" composed of Semu people had been scattered in pastures or incorporated into civilian nationality after the fall of the Jin Dynasty, which was basically equivalent to disbandment.
In this case, a large part of the reason why Kublai Khan was able to finally defeat the powerful Ali Buge was the support of the armed forces of the Central Plains Shihou. This force was the private armed forces that came to be known as the "Han Army".
The Han army was huge, with the largest ones reaching fifty or sixty thousand, and the small ones numbering twenty or thirty thousand. Not only were they numerous, but they were also formidable in combat, "fighting hard as generals, practicing military revolution, riding and shooting, and looking at the Mongolia Uighurs as particularly fierce."
It was with the strong support of the Han generals and Hanchen that Kublai Khan finally won this power struggle and successfully ascended to the throne of the Great Khan. However, this support also meant that Kublai Khan's regime would inevitably represent the interests of the Han army, which laid a hidden danger for future political developments.
In order to further consolidate his rule, Kublai Khan took a series of measures. He imitated the military system of the Jin Dynasty and created the "Armed Guard Army".
This new army selected 30,000 Han soldiers from all walks of life, and all the military attaches were Han Chinese. The Wuwei became Kublai Khan's personal arm, under the direct command of the emperor's cronies, and was not subject to the control of the Privy Council.
The Han army has made outstanding achievements and its status is like the sky
After Kublai Khan ascended the throne and became emperor, the status of the Han army reached unprecedented heights. This army, composed of the armed forces of the Central Plains princes, played a great role in helping Kublai Khan seize power.
Not only were they numerous, but they were also surprisingly combative, making them the most reliable military force of the new imperial court.
The composition of the Han army can be described as varied, including the children of generals who have served in the army for generations, the generals of the Song Dynasty who defected to Mongolia, and some ordinary people who joined in order to survive. This diverse background makes the Han army extremely adaptable and creative in both tactics and strategies.
They were able to use both traditional Central Plains tactics and the guerrilla tactics of the Mongolian cavalry, making them a unique hybrid army.
Kublai Khan was well aware of the importance of the Han army, and in order to better control this force, he took a series of measures. Among them, the most striking is the creation of the "Armed Guards".
This new army carefully selected 30,000 elites from all walks of life from the Han army, all of whom were Han Chinese military attachés. The Wuwei army was directly under the orders of the emperor and was not subject to the control of the Privy Council, and became Kublai Khan's most trusted personal army.
The establishment of the Wuwei Army marked the further improvement of the status of the Han army. They were no longer just an ordinary army, but became a direct extension of imperial power.
This elite division made repeated exploits in the subsequent conquests, further consolidating the Han army's position as the core of the Yuan Dynasty's military system.
However, the rise of the Han army was not without its challenges. In the early days of the Yuan Dynasty, they also faced challenges from traditional Mongolian armies.
The Mongolia Great Khan's bodyguard pro-army "Cowardly Xue Army", composed of the leaders of various departments and the children of meritorious heroes, has always been the elite of the Mongolia army. However, with the continuous increase in the strength of the Han army, the position of the cowardly Xue army began to be shaken.
In terms of numbers and combat effectiveness, the Han army began to surpass the Mongolia army and the Tanma Red army in the hands of Kublai Khan. This change in the balance of power made the Han army gradually replace the role of the cowardly Xue army.
Whether it was guarding the emperor, working as a servant, or serving as a "great army" on the battlefield, the Han army showed extraordinary ability.
The rise of the Han army was not only reflected in the military but also in the political field. Many Han generals gradually entered the core decision-making circle of the imperial court by virtue of their own merits.
They played an important role in both the military and political spheres, and became an important link between the Mongolia rulers and the Han people.
However, history is always full of irony. Just when the Han army seemed to be in full swing, a series of events changed their fate.
The rebellion of Li Pu, the Han marquis of Yidu Province, became the beginning of this turning point. Li Pu led the army to rebel against Mongolia, dedicated four cities to the Southern Song Dynasty, and won the title of "King of Qi County".
The rebellion, though quickly put down, sowed the seeds of distrust in Kublai Khan's heart. He began to re-examine the loyalty of Han Chinese generals and took steps to limit their power.
At the same time, a new military power began to emerge. Although the number of the Tanma Red Army was less than half of that of the Han army, they fought with the Mongolian army in the nature of auxiliary troops and gradually accumulated rich war experience.
In particular, the Kipchaks, who played a key role in quelling civil strife and foreign campaigns.
The rise of these Semu soldiers provided Kublai Khan with a new option to balance the power of the Han army. He began to consciously nurture the Semu soldiers, gradually adding them to the guards and pro-army.
Although this policy did not affect the dominance of the Han army for the time being, it heralded a subtle change in the pattern of military power.
The vacillation of the position of the Han army is also reflected in some subtleties. Kublai Khan repeatedly "imposed a strict ban on the armaments of the Han people", stipulating that the Han army was not allowed to possess ordnance when not performing its duties.
Although ostensibly intended to strengthen management, this move actually reflected the rulers' growing defensive attitude towards the Han army.
Despite this, in the early years of the Yuan Dynasty, the Han army remained one of the most relied upon military forces of the imperial court. They continue to play an important role in quelling civil strife and fending off foreign enemies.
However, as time went on, the fate of the Han army was also quietly changing. Their glory and decline have become a microcosm of the complex history of the multi-ethnic regime of the Yuan Dynasty.
The Semu army rose, and the power of the Han army gradually declined
In the decades after the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, the status of the Han army went through a process of decline from prosperity to decline. This transformation did not happen overnight, but gradually under the impetus of a series of events and policies.
Among them, the rise of the Semu military played a key role.
The Semu soldiers, a special group composed of people from various countries, were only an auxiliary army in the early Yuan Dynasty. They were small in number and did not have a high status, and their main task was to assist the Mongolia army in the conquest of the Quartet.
However, it was this frequent experience of conquest that allowed them to accumulate rich war experience and gradually grow into a military force that could not be ignored.
The Kipchak guard was the best of the Semu soldiers. This army, composed of Kipchaks from the Western Regions, performed many miraculous feats in quelling civil strife and foreign conquests.
Their bravery and bravery soon caught the attention of Kublai Khan. The Emperor began to consciously nurture this emerging force, gradually adding them to the Guards.
Behind this decision was Kublai Khan's careful calculation of the balance of power. As the Han army grew in power, the rulers began to fear that they might threaten their rule.
The rise of the Semu army provided Kublai Khan with a new option to balance the power of the Han army.
However, relying solely on the Semu army was not enough to completely replace the position of the Han army. What really led to the decline of the Han army's power was a series of political events and policy adjustments.
Among them, the rebellion of Li Pu, the Han marquis of Yidu Province, became an important turning point. Li Pu led the army to rebel against Mongolia, dedicated four cities to the Southern Song Dynasty, and won the title of "King of Qi County".
The rebellion, though quickly put down, sowed the seeds of distrust in Kublai Khan's heart.
After the Li Pu incident, Kublai Khan began to re-examine the loyalty of Han Chinese generals. He took a series of measures to limit the power of the Han army, including repeatedly "prohibiting the use of weapons by the Han people", stipulating that the Han army was not allowed to possess ordnance when not performing its duties.
These seemingly minor policy adjustments actually reflected the rulers' growing defensive attitude towards the Han army.
At the same time, the status of the Semu military is constantly improving. They gradually replaced the Han army as the emperor's most trusted armed force.
In important tasks such as guarding the emperor and servants, the figures of Semu soldiers appeared more and more. This change is not only evident in the military sphere, but also in the political arena.
By virtue of their own merits, many Semu soldiers gradually entered the core decision-making circle of the imperial court. They began to play an important role in both the military and political spheres, gradually replacing Han generals as the link between the Mongolia rulers and the Han people.
However, the rise of the Lust Eye Army was not without its challenges. They also faced challenges from traditional Mongolian armies.
The Mongolia Great Khan's bodyguard pro-army "Cowardly Xue Army", composed of the leaders of various departments and the children of meritorious heroes, has always been the elite of the Mongolia army. This army has a strong sense of defending its position and privileges.
In the face of the rise of the Semu army, the cowardly Xue army will naturally not sit idly by. The contradictions and competition between the two armies became a major feature of the military system of the Yuan Dynasty.
In this complex power game, the position of the Han army was further marginalized. Not only have they lost their military dominance, but their political influence is also gradually weakening.
The once glorious Han generals began to fade out of the core decision-making circle of the imperial court. Their place was taken by the newly raised Lust Army.
This change is not done in the short term. It is a gradual process that has taken decades. In the process, the Han army gradually fell from the most relied on military force of the Yuan Dynasty to the marginal power of the imperial court.
However, the development of history is often full of drama. Just as the Han army's power was declining, a new problem began to emerge.
As the status of the Semu soldiers increased, they also began to gradually break away from the emperor's control. Some ambitious men of the military have even begun to get their hands on political power, triggering a new power struggle.
This situation forced the rulers to reconsider the balance of military power. In a way, it provided the possibility for the re-emergence of the Han army.
However, history did not give the Han army much chance to turn over. With the decline of the Yuan dynasty's rule, the entire military system began to fall into chaos.
The fate of the Han army has thus become a microcosm of the complex history of this multi-ethnic regime. Their rise and fall not only reflect the evolution of the military system of the Yuan Dynasty, but also reflect the changes in the power structure of this era.
The military system is corrupt and declining, and the country is about to run out
Later in the Yuan Dynasty, the collapse of the military system became a microcosm of the decline of the entire empire. The once mighty Mongolia iron cavalry has now lost its former sharpness.
This mighty army, which once swept across Europe and Asia, was gradually worn out by the profligacy and corruption of its rulers.
Corruption in the military is everywhere from top to bottom. Top generals are obsessed with power struggles and neglect the training and management of the army.
They were more concerned with how to gain a higher status in the imperial court than with how to improve the combat effectiveness of the army.
Not to be outdone, the middle-level officers followed the example of their superiors. They began to embezzle military salaries and withhold soldiers' rations and equipment.
Some officers even treated soldiers as private laborers, leaving them to do their own private work rather than military training.
Under these circumstances, the life of ordinary soldiers became more and more difficult. Not only do they have to endure hunger and cold, but they also have to face oppression and exploitation from their superiors.
In order to survive, many soldiers had to take risks and even become bandits.
Discipline in the army is becoming more and more lax, and its combat effectiveness has dropped sharply. The Mongolia army, which was once able to lead ten, is now difficult to suppress even ordinary peasant uprisings.
In one defeat after another, the military strength of the Yuan Dynasty was gradually depleted.
At the same time, the political system of the Yuan Dynasty was also in a serious crisis. Emperors were obsessed with wine and ignored state affairs.
The various factions in the court fought each other for power, and the whole country was in a state of fragmentation.
In this situation of internal and external troubles, the people's resistance is growing day by day. Peasant uprisings occurred one after another, putting tremendous pressure on the rule of the Yuan Dynasty.
Among them, the religious organizations represented by the White Lotus Sect have become an important force in the anti-Yuan forces.
Faced with this situation, the rulers of the Yuan Dynasty were powerless to turn things around. They tried to increase military spending by raising taxes, but this only further exacerbated popular discontent.
Some far-sighted people put forward proposals for reform, but they were all rejected by conservatives.
The corruption and incompetence of the army were laid bare in the war against the Japanese invaders. The Japanese bandits ravaged the southeast coast, burning, killing, looting, and committing all kinds of evil.
The troops sent by the Yuan Dynasty either fled or were defeated.
This situation not only undermined the morale of the army, but also caused the people to completely lose confidence in the imperial court. More and more people are looking for new paths, and there are many people with lofty ideals.
It was against this background that Zhu Yuanzhang rose. He gradually grew from an ordinary leader of a peasant rebel army to a prince.
Zhu Yuanzhang was well aware of the importance of the armed forces, and he paid special attention to the building and management of the armed forces.
In Zhu Yuanzhang's army, discipline was strict, and rewards and punishments were clear. He personally formulated a series of military regulations and severely punished soldiers and officers who violated discipline.
At the same time, he also paid great attention to the welfare of his soldiers, ensuring that they had enough food and equipment. This practice greatly increased the combat effectiveness and loyalty of the army.
In stark contrast, the army of the Yuan Dynasty was still self-contained and did not want to forge ahead. They are still basking in the glory of the past, believing that they can shock the world by virtue of the prestige of their ancestors.
However, reality dealt them a heavy blow. In the confrontation with Zhu Yuanzhang's army, the Yuan army was repeatedly defeated.
As the war progressed, more and more troops and generals took refuge in Zhu Yuanzhang. The military power of the Yuan Dynasty quickly collapsed like an avalanche.
Eventually, Emperor Yuan Shun fled north, marking the complete collapse of Yuan rule. This great empire, which once spanned Europe and Asia, came to an end in the corruption and decline of the military system.
The fall of the Yuan Dynasty left a profound lesson for later generations. It tells us that the rise and fall of a country is closely related to the strength of its military power.
Neglecting army building and allowing military discipline to deteriorate will inevitably lead to the decline of the country.
However, the wheel of history never stops. The fall of the Yuan Dynasty also marked the beginning of a new era. The Ming Dynasty, established by Zhu Yuanzhang, will carry out a series of reforms in the military system to learn the lessons of the defeat of the Yuan Dynasty.
These reforms not only consolidated the rule of the Ming Dynasty, but also provided new ideas for the development of the ancient Chinese military system.
The rise and fall of the military system of the Yuan Dynasty has become a case worth pondering in Chinese history. It not only reflects the fate of a dynasty, but also reflects the changes of an era.
This period of history has left a valuable enlightenment for future generations: Only by constantly reforming and innovating and advancing with the times can we maintain the combat effectiveness of the armed forces and thus safeguard the long-term peace and stability of the country.