The period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties in Chinese history was an era full of turbulence and change. From the establishment of the Liu Song dynasty in 420 AD to the unification of China by the Sui Dynasty in 589 AD, what great changes did China experience in these short 170 years? Why was the North-South confrontation finally broken? In this process, what role did the surrounding peoples such as Rouran and Turkic play? How did the territory change at that time? How did all these changes lay the foundation for the prosperity of the Sui and Tang dynasties? Let's travel back in time and space to 1,600 years ago and explore this magnificent history together. In the process of moving from this great split to great reunification, what historical enlightenment can we see from it?
1. The formation of a pattern of division between the North and the South
In 420 AD, Liu Yu, a warlord at the end of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, usurped the throne and established the Liu Song Dynasty, marking the official beginning of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. Liu Yu came from a humble background, but he relied on his military talent to reach the pinnacle of power step by step. He first quelled the rebellion of Sun En and Lu Xun, and then eliminated the separatist forces such as Huan Xuan and Qian Zong, and finally unified the south. The rise of Liu Yu not only ended the Eastern Jin Dynasty, but also laid the foundation for the establishment of the Southern Dynasty.
At the same time, the Tuoba clan in the north was on the rise. In 386, Tuoba Jue established the Northern Wei Dynasty and began the long road to unify the north. The Northern Wei Dynasty adopted a series of policies to consolidate its rule, such as the implementation of the policy of "Fuyi and Yang Xia" and the implementation of Sinicization reforms. These measures greatly strengthened the national strength of the Northern Wei Dynasty and laid the foundation for its eventual unification of the north.
In 439, the Northern Wei Dynasty destroyed the Northern Liang and unified the north, and the north-south confrontation pattern was formally formed. In this year, Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty Tuoba Tao personally conquered Northern Liang and conquered Guzang (now Wuwei, Gansu), and the Northern Liang monarch Fuqu Muqian fled to the Western Regions and was killed in Gaochang. At this point, the period of the Sixteen Kingdoms ended, and China entered the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties.
In the early days of the confrontation between the north and the south, there were frequent military clashes between the two sides. The wars between the Liu Song and the Northern Wei Dynasty were one after another, with the two Northern Expeditions launched by Emperor Wen of the Song Dynasty Liu Yilong being the most famous. The first Northern Expedition took place in 430, when Liu Yilong sent generals such as Tan Daoji and Wang Zhenwei to lead his army north, and once captured Luoyang, but eventually withdrew due to insufficient logistical supplies. The Second Northern Expedition took place in 451, when Liu Yilong personally supervised the army, but suffered heavy losses on the north bank of the Yellow River by Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty. These two failed Northern Expeditions not only dealt a heavy blow to Liu Song's national strength, but also marked the end of the "rule of Yuan Jia".
In the early days of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, in addition to the confrontation between the North and the South, the North also faced a threat from the grasslands. In 402, the Rouran Khanate was established on the Mongolian plateau and became a formidable rival of the Northern Wei. Rouran is a nomadic people formed by the fusion of Xianbei and Xiongnu, who are good at riding and archery, and have strong combat effectiveness. Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty made many northern expeditions to Rouran, and although he achieved some victories, he was never able to completely destroy this strong enemy in the grassland.
In order to deal with the threat of Rouran, the Northern Wei Dynasty adopted a series of defensive measures. The most famous of these was the construction of six towns on the northern border, namely Huaishuo, Wuchuan, Fuming, Xindu, Xianzhou, and Rouxuan. These military towns were not only front-line fortresses against the invasion of Rouran, but also a springboard for the Northern Wei Dynasty's expansion to the north.
Over time, the balance of power between the North and the South gradually changed. Through continuous reform and expansion, the Northern Wei Dynasty became increasingly powerful. In contrast, the Liu Song dynasty was weakened by internal contradictions and frequent coups. In 479, Liu Song was replaced by the Southern Qi founded by Xiao Daocheng, marking the beginning of a new phase in the Southern Dynasty.
The formation of the pattern of division between the north and the south not only changed China's political map, but also profoundly affected the development of society and culture. In the south, Jiankang (present-day Nanjing) was the center, forming an aristocratic political culture dominated by scholars; In the north, Pingcheng (now Datong, Shanxi) and Luoyang were the center, and the Sinicization policy was gradually implemented, forming a unique Hu-Han fusion culture. This cultural difference between the north and the south laid the groundwork for later cultural exchanges and integration.
2. Political and cultural development during the period of the North-South balance of power
With the formation of the pattern of north-south division, China has entered a period of relatively stable north-south balance of power. The most significant features of this period are the reforms of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty and the establishment of the Southern Qi Dynasty, as well as the cultural exchanges and integration between the north and the south that resulted from them.
The reform of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty was one of the most influential political events during the Northern and Southern Dynasties. In 493, at the age of 16, Tuoba Hong ascended to the throne and, with the support of his grandmother, Empress Dowager Feng, began a series of drastic reforms. The most famous of these was the relocation of the capital to Luoyang and the implementation of the policy of sinicization.
Moving the capital to Luoyang was a decision with far-reaching implications. As an important city in the hinterland of the Central Plains, Luoyang is not only strategically located, but also has a profound cultural heritage. After the relocation of the capital, the Northern Wei court was able to better control the Central Plains, and at the same time accelerated the integration of the Xianbei aristocracy and the Han scholars.
The sinicization policy involves many aspects. Emperor Xiaowen ordered the Xianbei nobles to change their Han surnames, such as changing the Tuoba clan to the Yuan clan; Promote Han-style clothing and prohibit Xianbei people from wearing traditional clothing; reforming the bureaucratic system and adopting the Han bureaucratic system; Promote the Chinese language and abolish the Xianbei language. These measures greatly promoted ethnic integration and laid the foundation for the later unification of the Sui and Tang dynasties.
At the same time, significant changes have taken place in the South. In 479, Xiao Daocheng replaced Liu Song and established Southern Qi. Although the Southern Qi ruled for a short time, they were quite successful in terms of culture. Emperor Xiao Zhen of Qi Wu advocated literary creation and personally participated in literary activities, making Southern Qi an important period of Southern Dynasty literature. It was during this period that the famous "Yongming" poetry arose.
During the period of the balance of power between the North and the South, although political antagonism was still maintained, cultural exchanges became more frequent. This communication is carried out in the following ways:
The first is the exchange of people. Although there were wars between the North and the South, the exchange of envoys, merchants, and scholars in peacetime was uninterrupted. For example, the famous painter Gu Kaizhi has traveled back and forth between the north and the south many times, bringing the painting techniques of the south to the north.
The second is cultural export. Literature, music, painting and other art forms from the south were gradually introduced to the north, influencing the cultural development of the north. The grotto art of the Northern Wei Dynasty was fused with the painting style of the South, forming a unique Wei and Jin style.
Again, the exchange of ideas. Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism spread to each other between the north and the south, promoting the integration and innovation of ideas. Buddhism, in particular, developed unprecedentedly during this period.
The spread and influence of Buddhism in the Northern and Southern Dynasties was an important feature of cultural development during this period. The rulers of the Northern Wei Dynasty strongly supported Buddhism and built a large number of temples and grottoes, such as the famous Yungang Grottoes and Longmen Grottoes. Xiao Yan, Emperor Wu of Liang in the south, is known as the "Buddhist Emperor", he sacrificed himself to Tongtai Temple many times, and personally commented on Buddhist scriptures.
The prosperity of Buddhism not only promoted the spread of religious beliefs, but also promoted the development of culture and art. Buddhist architecture, sculpture, and painting became the main forms of art during this period. At the same time, the translation and study of Buddhist scriptures also promoted the development of linguistics and philosophy.
It is important to note that the cultural exchange of this period was not one-way. Some cultural elements from the North were also introduced to the South. For example, the northern music form "Qingshang music" became popular in the south and became an important part of the court music of the Southern Dynasties.
The political and cultural developments of the period of the balance of power between the north and the south laid the foundation for the later unification. Although the North and the South are still divided, cultural exchanges and integration are deepening. This cultural convergence created the conditions for later political unification. At the same time, the cultural prosperity of this period also accumulated rich cultural resources for the Sui and Tang dynasties.
3. The breakdown of the balance of power and the rise of new forces
In the middle of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the originally relatively stable balance of power was broken, and a new political pattern and forces gradually took shape. The most notable features of this period were the division of the Northern Wei Dynasty, the decline of the Southern Dynasties, and the rise of the surrounding ethnic groups.
The division of the Northern Wei Dynasty began with the Six Towns Rebellion in 534. In the last years of the Northern Wei Dynasty, the imperial power weakened, and the Hu troops in the six towns took the opportunity to rebel. Gao Huan took advantage of the chaos to rise, supported Yuan Shanjian as the emperor, established the Eastern Wei Dynasty, and established the capital Luoyang. Another warlord, Yuwentai, supported the Yuanbao torch as the emperor and established the Western Wei Dynasty, with the capital Chang'an. This event marked another split in the north.
The antagonism between the Eastern and Western Wei was not only reflected in military affairs, but also in politics and culture. The Eastern Wei Dynasty continued the Sinicization policy of the Northern Wei Dynasty, while the Western Wei Dynasty retained more of the Xianbei tradition. The feud between the two countries lasted for nearly two decades and finally ended with the unification of the north by the Northern Zhou.
The decline of the Southern Dynasties was marked by the Hou Jing Rebellion. In 550, Hou Jing, a general of the Eastern Wei Dynasty, launched a rebellion when Emperor Xiao Yan of Liang Wu was seriously ill. Hou Jing led his army to besiege Jiankang City, causing a severe famine. Emperor Xiao Yi of Liang Yuan was forced to surrender the city, and the Liang Dynasty fell into chaos. This rebellion not only led to the demise of the Liang Dynasty, but also greatly weakened the power of the Southern Dynasty, and the territory shrank sharply.
At a time of internal turmoil in the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Turkic khanates in the northern steppes rose rapidly. In 552, the Turkic leader Territory defeated Rouran and established the Turkic Khanate. The rise of the Turks changed the balance of power between the Central Plains dynasty and the nomads, and had a profound impact on the Central Plains.
The Turks adopted a flexible diplomatic strategy and maintained complex relations with the Central Plains regimes. They sometimes allied with the Northern Zhou against the Northern Qi, and sometimes joined forces with the Northern Qi against the Northern Zhou. This left-right strategy allowed the Turks to expand rapidly in a short period of time, becoming a powerful empire spanning the Eurasian continent.
The rise of the Turks not only affected the political situation in the Central Plains, but also promoted cultural exchanges between the East and the West. The Silk Road flourished again under Turkic control, and Chinese goods such as silk and porcelain were continuously shipped to the West, and Western cultural elements such as music, dance, and religion were also introduced to China.
In the northwest, the Tuyuhun Kingdom also experienced a period of expansion and decline. Tuyuhun was a Xianbei branch that established its own regime in the mid-4th century. They occupied the Qinghai Lake region and controlled part of the Hexi Corridor, which became an important link between the Central Plains and the Western Regions.
Tuyuhun was at its peak from the middle of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. They maintained friendly relations with the Southern Dynasty and repeatedly paid tribute to the Southern Dynasty with horses. At the same time, Tuyuhun also actively participated in the Silk Road trade and became an important commercial transit point. However, with the rise of the Northern Zhou and Sui dynasties, Tuyuhun's power gradually declined. During the reign of Emperor Wen of Sui, Tuyuhun was forced to join the Sui Dynasty and became a vassal state.
In Northeast Asia, the struggle between Goguryeo and Baekje was also an important event during this period. Goguryeo reached its peak in the mid-5th century, and its territory spanned northeastern China and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. However, with the recovery of the strength of the Central Plains Dynasty in the late Northern and Southern Dynasties, Goguryeo began to face pressure from the Central Plains.
Baekje sought an alliance with the Central Plains Dynasty in its battle with Goguryeo. They repeatedly sent envoys to the Southern and Northern Dynasties to seek military and diplomatic support. This complex diplomatic relationship laid the groundwork for the political situation in Northeast Asia during the Sui and Tang dynasties.
The changes in the political landscape during this period reflect an important feature of Chinese history: the rise and fall of the Central Plains Dynasty and the rise of surrounding ethnic groups often influenced and alternated with each other. When the Central Plains Dynasty fell into division and weakening, the surrounding peoples would take the opportunity to rise; And when a strong unified dynasty emerged, the surrounding peoples would decline or be incorporated into the ruling system of the central dynasty.
Fourth, the process of unification and the short-lived glory of the Sui Dynasty
With the rise of new forces and the breaking of the old pattern, Chinese history gradually moved towards the process of reunification. This process began with the unification of the north by the Northern Zhou Dynasty, experienced the short-term unification of the Sui Dynasty, and finally achieved a long-term stable unification situation in the Tang Dynasty.
The unification of the North by the Northern Zhou began in 557. Yuwenjue deposed Emperor of Western Wei, established himself as Emperor Wu of Zhou, and established the Northern Zhou Dynasty. Subsequently, the Northern Zhou gradually expanded its sphere of influence through a series of military operations. In 561, the Northern Zhou Dynasty defeated the Western Wei Dynasty, a separatist force of the Liang Dynasty, and gained a vast area north of the Yangtze River and east of the Han River. In 577, the Northern Zhou Dynasty destroyed the Northern Qi Dynasty and unified the entire north.
However, the rule of the Northern Zhou did not last long. In 581, Yang Jian deposed the young Emperor Jing of Zhou and established the Sui Dynasty. Yang Jian, also known as Emperor Wen of Sui, took a series of measures to consolidate his power and laid the foundation for the unification of the country.
Emperor Wen of Sui first introduced a series of political reforms. He abolished the military system of the Northern Zhou Dynasty and established a new military system based on recruitment, which strengthened the central government's control over the localities. At the same time, he also implemented the prototype of the imperial examination system, breaking the monopoly of official positions by the clan, and laying the foundation for the imperial examination system in the later Tang Dynasty.
On the economic front, Emperor Wen of Sui implemented the equalization system, which set the amount of land that each peasant household could obtain and required the peasants to pay taxes according to the area of the land. This system has effectively stabilized agricultural production and increased state revenue.
Emperor Wen of Sui also attached great importance to water conservancy construction. He ordered the construction of the famous Guangtong Canal, which connected the Yellow River and the Huai River, greatly improving north-south transportation. In addition, he also built the Yongji Canal and the Tongji Canal, forming the prototype of the Grand Canal connecting the north and the south, and laying the foundation for the later Sui and Tang Dynasties.
On the basis of unifying the north, Emperor Wen of Sui began to plan to unify the whole country. He adopted a policy of gentleness and sent envoys to the south many times to express his willingness to peaceful reunification. At the same time, he is also secretly accumulating strength and waiting for the right time.
In 589, Emperor Wen of Sui decided that the time was ripe and launched a war against Southern Chen. The Sui army marched south in three directions, and the Chen dynasty quickly collapsed under strong military pressure. The Sui army captured Jiankang, Chen Houzhu surrendered, the division between the north and the south came to an end, and China was once again unified.
After the unification of the country, Emperor Wen of Sui continued to implement various reform measures. He divided the country into five states, each with a governor's office, and strengthened the central government's control over the localities. At the same time, he also implemented the system of three provinces and six ministries, established a sound central government agency, and laid the foundation for the later political system of the Tang Dynasty.
In 604, Emperor Wen of Sui died, and his son Yang Guang ascended the throne as Emperor Yang of Sui. Emperor Yang of Sui inherited his father's ambitions, but his approach to governance was very different. He built the eastern capital of Luoyang and moved the capital from Chang'an to Luoyang. At the same time, he also ordered the construction of the Grand Canal connecting the north and south, which made the transportation network of the Sui Dynasty more perfect.
Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty also actively carried out foreign expansion. He personally conquered Goguryeo many times, and although he made some military achievements, he also spent a lot of manpower and material resources. In addition, he also sent troops to conquer Tuyuhun and exert influence on the Western Regions, expanding the foreign influence of the Sui Dynasty.
However, Emperor Yang of Sui's large-scale projects and frequent use of foreign troops brought a heavy burden to the people. In addition, he is extravagant, and the people's grievances are deepening. Beginning in 610, peasant uprisings broke out one after another. The most famous of these were the Yang Xuangan Uprising and the Wagang Army Uprising led by Li Mi.
Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty faced uprisings everywhere, but he still went his own way. He organized many large-scale tours, which cost huge financial resources. In 618, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty was killed by his subordinates in Jiangdu (present-day Yangzhou), and the Sui Dynasty was overthrown.
Although the Sui Dynasty only existed for a short period of 37 years, it occupies an important place in Chinese history. The Sui Dynasty not only ended the division that lasted for more than 300 years, but also carried out a series of political, economic, and cultural reforms, laying the foundation for the subsequent prosperity of the Tang Dynasty. In particular, the Grand Canal, built by the Sui Dynasty, played a huge role in later generations and became the economic lifeline connecting the north and the south.
5. The establishment of the Tang Dynasty and its prosperity
The collapse of the Sui dynasty created the conditions for the establishment of a new unified dynasty. In the chaos of the division of the powers, Li Yuan and his son Li Shimin finally established the Tang Empire, which lasted for nearly 300 years, with their outstanding military talents and political wisdom.
Li Yuan was originally left behind in Taiyuan of the Sui Dynasty and raised troops against the Sui in the chaotic times at the end of the Sui Dynasty. In 617, Li Yuan occupied Chang'an, supported Emperor Gong of Sui as his puppet, and appointed himself prime minister. The following year, Li Yuan deposed Emperor Gong of Sui and established himself as the emperor, which was for Tang Gaozu and set the capital in Chang'an.
However, the establishment of political power is only the first step, and how to unify the whole country is the real challenge. In this process, Li Shimin played a key role. As Li Yuan's second son, Li Shimin has repeatedly made military exploits with his outstanding military talents. He successively defeated Wang Shichong, Dou Jiande and other separatist forces, laying the foundation for the Tang Dynasty to unify the country.
Li Shimin's talent aroused the suspicion of his brother, the crown prince Li Jiancheng. The contradictions between the brothers deepened day by day, and eventually led to the "Xuanwumen Change" that shocked the government and the opposition. In 626, Li Shimin staged a coup d'état and killed Li Jiancheng and another brother, Li Yuanji. Subsequently, Li Yuan was forced to Zen in Li Shimin, and Li Shimin ascended the throne for Tang Taizong.
After Tang Taizong ascended the throne, he actively implemented a series of reform measures and created a prosperous era of "Zhenguan rule". He vigorously promoted the strategy of "learning from history" and often discussed historical gains and losses with ministers to guide realpolitik. At the same time, he opened up his views and encouraged ministers to speak out, creating an enlightened political atmosphere.
In terms of political system, Tang Taizong perfected the system of three provinces and six ministries, making the central government institutions more sound. He also implemented the supervision system and set up the Imperial Historical Observatory to supervise hundreds of officials. These measures have effectively curbed bureaucratic corruption and improved government efficiency.
In terms of economy, Tang Taizong continued to implement the system of equalizing land and implemented the system of "rent and mediocrity" to standardize the collection of taxes. He also encouraged agricultural production and reduced taxes on several occasions so that agricultural production could be restored and developed. At the same time, he also attached importance to the development of commerce, relaxed restrictions on merchants, and promoted the prosperity of the commodity economy.
In terms of foreign relations, Tang Taizong adopted a flexible policy. Through military conquest and diplomatic means, he made the surrounding ethnic groups submit one after another, and established the "Tian Khan" system centered on the Tang Dynasty. The conquest of the Turks, in particular, greatly expanded the Tang Dynasty's sphere of influence.
After the death of Tang Taizong, his son Li Zhi ascended the throne as Tang Gaozong. During the Gaozong period, Wu Zetian began to rise. She progressively rose from a low-level court maid to eventually become the de facto ruler. In Gaozong's later years, Wu Zetian had already controlled the power of the court.
After the death of Gaozong, Wu Zetian deposed Zhongzong and Ruizong successively through a series of political means, and finally established himself as emperor and changed the name of the country to Zhou. During the reign of Wu Zetian, he continued to implement the policy of Tang Taizong, and the national strength was further enhanced. In particular, she vigorously promoted the imperial examination system, broke the monopoly of the Shi family, and sent a large number of talents to the Tang Dynasty.
In 705, Wu Zetian was forced to abdicate, and Tang Zhongzong was restored. In the years that followed, the Tang Dynasty underwent a series of coup d'état, culminating in the accession of Li Longji (Tang Xuanzong) to the throne in 710.
After Tang Xuanzong ascended the throne, he vigorously promoted reforms and created the "Kaiyuan Prosperous Era". He appointed virtuous people, such as Yao Chong, Song Jing and other famous ministers, to make politics clear. Economically, he encouraged agricultural production and reduced taxes, so that "the family is sufficient, and the warehouse knows etiquette". In terms of culture, Tang Xuanzong vigorously advocated poetry creation, and he was also an excellent poet and musician.
However, in the last years of the Kaiyuan Dynasty, Tang Xuanzong gradually indulged in lustful dogs and horses, and the government became increasingly corrupt. In particular, he favored Yang Guifei and appointed the traitor Li Linfu, which laid a hidden danger for the later "Anshi Rebellion".
Still, the prosperity of the early Tang Dynasty remained an important milestone in Chinese history. It has not only made great achievements in politics, economy, culture and other aspects, but also has had a profound impact on neighboring countries. The system, culture, and art of the Tang Dynasty were widely spread to Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and other places, forming a wide range of "Tang style". During this period, Chang'an became the largest and most prosperous international metropolis in the world, attracting a large number of foreign envoys, businessmen and students, and promoting cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.