In the long history of human civilization, there are two ancient dynasties that have always attracted the attention of historians and archaeologists: the Cretan civilization and the Xia Dynasty in China. Both civilizations were born in the distant Bronze Age, and both played a seminal role in their respective regions. However, their fates in modern academia are very different. The Cretan civilization, once thought to be a myth and legend, is now widely recognized and studied. In contrast, the Xia dynasty, although it occupies an important place in traditional Chinese history books, has always been shrouded in the shadow of doubt. What led to the different fates of these two ancient civilizations in modern academia? Differences in archaeological findings, documentation, or research methods? Let's unravel this historical mystery and explore why.
1. Differences in the literature
When discussing the historical recognition of the Cretan civilization and the Xia dynasty, we have to first focus on the important factor of documentary record. The two ancient civilizations are presented in completely different ways in historical documents, which directly affects the cognition and research attitude of later scholars.
As the beginning of the dynasty in traditional Chinese history books, the Xia Dynasty has a long history in documentary records. Since the Western Zhou Dynasty, records of the Xia Dynasty have appeared in the inscriptions of the bronze. The Zhou people claimed to be descendants of the Xia and often mentioned the deeds of the Xia dynasty when tracing their ancestors. However, these early accounts are often brief and scattered, focusing mainly on a few key figures and events, such as Dayu's control of the water and the tyranny of Xia Wei.
Over time, the records of the Xia dynasty were gradually systematized. The Bamboo Book Chronicle, which appeared during the Warring States Period, was the first chronicle of the Xia Dynasty to systematically record the history of the Xia Dynasty. Although it has been dispersed, we can still get a glimpse of some of it through later references. In the Western Han Dynasty, Sima Qian's "Historical Records" compiled the history of the Xia Dynasty in a more complete and detailed manner. The "Historical Records · Xia Benji" not only records the royal table of the Xia Dynasty, but also describes in detail the deeds and important historical events of each monarch.
In contrast, the Cretan civilization is relatively scarce and vague in ancient Greece documents. The earliest mention of Crete is the famous Homeric epic, which depicts a rich island called Crete, ruled by the Minoan kings. However, these descriptions are seen more as myths and legends than as reliable historical records.
During the classical period, some Greece historians such as Thucydides and Herodotus made sporadic mentions of Crete and the Minoan kings in their writings. Thucydides claims that Minos was the first to form a navy, while Herodotus mentions that the Garians had been Minos' subjects. But these accounts remain brief and fragmented, lacking in systematization and coherence.
This difference in the literature has led to the different fates of the two civilizations in later perceptions. The abundant and detailed records of the Xia Dynasty have led Chinese scholars to believe in its existence for a long time, regarding it as the source of Chinese civilization. On the other hand, the Cretan civilization, due to the lack of systematic documentary support, has long been regarded as a myth and legend by Western scholars, and it was not until the emergence of archaeological discoveries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that this situation began to change.
However, the richness of the documentation does not equate to its credibility. With the development of modern archaeology, scholars have begun to re-examine these ancient documents. For the Xia Dynasty, although it is rich in literature, it lacks the support of contemporaneous written materials, coupled with the lack of archaeological evidence, which makes its historical authenticity questionable. In contrast, although the Cretan civilization is scarcely documented in ancient Greece documents, archaeological discoveries provide strong material evidence for it, which in turn enhances its historical authenticity.
This contrast reminds us that the study of ancient civilizations requires a combination of archaeological discoveries and the results of other disciplines, rather than relying solely on documentary records. The dialectical relationship between documentary records and archaeological discoveries is the key to understanding the difference in recognition of the Cretan civilization and the Xia dynasty in modern academic circles. This also leads us to think: how to find a balance between documentary records and archaeological discoveries to gain a more objective and comprehensive understanding of ancient civilizations?
2. The importance of archaeological discoveries
Archaeological discoveries undoubtedly played a crucial role in the discussion of the historical recognition of the Cretan civilization and the Xia dynasty. It not only provides physical evidence for documentary records, but also often reveals historical details that are not recorded in the literature. The differences between the Cretan civilization and the Xia dynasty in terms of archaeological discoveries have directly affected their status in modern academic circles.
The archaeological breakthrough of the Cretan civilization can be described as dramatic. In 1900, United Kingdom archaeologist Arthur · Evans began excavations at Knossos in Crete. His discoveries have revolutionized the way people think about this ancient civilization. Evans excavated the ruins of a sprawling palace with breathtaking scale and intricacies. Known as the "Minoan Palace", the complex covers an area of about 22,000 square meters and contains hundreds of rooms, as well as a well-designed drainage system and ventilation facilities.
The artifacts unearthed in the palace surprised archaeologists even more. The brightly colored murals depict the daily life and religious rituals of the Cretans, with the most famous "bullfighting murals" vividly depicting young men fighting with bulls. Fine pottery, gold and silver vessels and sculptures reflect the high level of Cretan craftsmanship. These discoveries not only confirm that the description of Crete in Homer's epic poems is not pure fiction, but also reveal a Bronze Age civilization that was far more advanced and prosperous than imagined.
Subsequently, archaeologists discovered more ruins on the island of Crete, such as the palace of Faistos and the palace of Mary. These sites further refine the perception of the Cretan civilization, showing a highly developed maritime civilization with multiple centers. In particular, the pottery plates excavated in Faistos, with undeciphered scripts printed on them, provide valuable material for the study of the language and writing systems of the Cretan civilization.
In contrast, the archaeological work of the Xia Dynasty faced many challenges. Although Chinese archaeologists have been exploring the Xia Dynasty site since the early 20th century, to this day there are still very few archaeological remains that can be identified as belonging to the Xia Dynasty.
The most representative discovery is the archaeological excavation of the Yanshi Erlitou site in Henan. A large number of bronzes, jades, and pottery have been unearthed at this site, showing a highly developed Bronze Age civilization. Many archaeologists believe that the Erlitou culture is likely to be the legendary late Xia Dynasty culture. However, this view remains controversial due to the lack of reliable documentary evidence.
Another important discovery is the Xinmi Xinqi site in Henan. The large palace foundations and exquisite jade artifacts unearthed here are believed by some scholars to be possible remnants of the early Xia Dynasty. But again, due to the lack of direct evidence, this view has not been unanimously accepted by the academic community.
The biggest dilemma facing the archaeology of the Xia Dynasty is how to correspond the archaeological findings to the Xia Dynasty in the literature. Without contemporaneous written records, it is difficult for archaeologists to determine that a site or artifact must have belonged to the Xia Dynasty. This situation is in stark contrast to the Cretan civilization, which, although poorly documented, was rich in archaeological finds and with definite chronological and cultural characteristics.
The impact of archaeological discoveries on the perception of history is profound. The archaeological breakthrough of the Cretan civilization not only confirms its existence, but also reveals a civilization that is far more complex and advanced than imagined. These discoveries have greatly changed the understanding of early European civilizations, turning the Cretan civilization from a myth and legend into a historical fact that can be studied in depth.
On the other hand, although archaeological work has made some progress, it has not been able to provide strong enough evidence to confirm its existence. This has led to the fact that scholarly views on the Xia Dynasty are still divided. Some scholars believe that even if the Xia dynasty did exist, its scale and influence may have been far less than what traditional history books portray.
The differences in archaeological finds have a direct impact on the status of the Cretan civilization and the Xia dynasty in modern academia. However, this does not mean that the study of the Xia Dynasty is at an impasse. On the contrary, this dilemma has prompted scholars to constantly innovate research methods and find new breakthroughs. For example, through the study of bronze casting techniques, or the use of interdisciplinary methods such as geology and paleoclimatology, the possibility of the existence of the Xia Dynasty is explored.
3. The key role of text interpretation
In the discussion of the historical recognition of the Cretan civilization and the Xia dynasty, the interpretation of the text plays a crucial role. As an important symbol of human civilization, writing not only records history, but also provides a direct window for us to understand ancient society. The decipherment of the Cretan civilization's linear characters A and B, as well as the discovery and study of Chinese oracle bone inscriptions, have greatly advanced the understanding of these two ancient civilizations.
The study of the written language of the Cretan civilization has been a tortuous and dramatic one. In 1900, United Kingdom archaeologist Arthur · Evans discovered a large number of clay tablets engraved with mysterious symbols during excavations at the ruins of Knossos Palace. He divided these symbols into two categories: Linear Script A and Linear Script B. This discovery immediately aroused great interest among linguists and archaeologists.
The decipherment of the linear script B was a major breakthrough in linguistics in the 20th century. In 1952, the young United Kingdom architect Michael · Wentrim began working on this script. He noted that certain symbols often appeared next to specific place names. By comparing known ancient Greece place names, Ventrice gradually established a decoding system. In 1953, he successfully deciphered the linear script B, confirming that it recorded an early form of ancient Greece.
This discovery not only confirms the connection between Cretan civilization and mainland Greece, but also provides valuable information for the study of Crete's socio-economic structure. The deciphered text consisted mainly of administrative and economic records, such as bills of supplies and demographics, which helped scholars reconstruct the functioning and social organization of the Cretan court.
However, the linear script A has not yet been fully deciphered. This more ancient writing system may have recorded the native language of the Cretan people, and its interpretation may reveal more secrets of the Cretan civilization. Nevertheless, the deciphering of the linear script B alone has enabled scholars to confirm the existence of the Cretan civilization and gain an in-depth understanding of its social structure.
In contrast, the study of Chinese characters during the Xia Dynasty faced greater challenges. It has long been believed that the earliest Chinese script was the Shang Dynasty oracle bone inscription. However, after Wang Yirong discovered the oracle bone inscription in 1899, scholars began to wonder: Is there an earlier source for such a mature writing system in the Shang Dynasty?
At the beginning of the 20th century, when scholars excavated the ruins of the Shang Dynasty in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province, they found a large number of oracle bones engraved with characters. These oracle bone inscriptions provide first-hand information for the study of the history of the Shang Dynasty, and also lead to the exploration of earlier writings. Some scholars have speculated that the Xia Dynasty may have had some form of writing, but this view has been controversial due to the lack of direct evidence.
In recent years, with the advancement of archaeological technology, some written symbols that may belong to the Xia Dynasty have gradually entered the field of vision of scholars. For example, on some pottery excavated from the Erlitou site, some simple symbols were found. Some scholars believe that these may be the prototypes of the Xia Dynasty script. However, due to the limited sample size and the inability to determine whether these symbols are truly linguistically significant, this view has not been widely accepted.
The study of oracle bone inscriptions provides an important reference for the exploration of Xia Dynasty writing. Scholars have attempted to trace the origins of Chinese writing by comparing oracle bone inscriptions with earlier symbols. Some studies suggest that some of the glyphs in the oracle may have been derived from earlier pictorial symbols. This provides a new idea for exploring the possible existence of writing systems during the Xia Dynasty.
There is no substitute for the place of textual evidence in historical research. The successful decipherment of the linear script B of the Cretan civilization not only confirms the existence of this civilization, but also provides us with a window into its social structure and daily life. This greatly enhanced the recognition of the Cretan civilization in the academic community. In contrast, the Xia dynasty lacked conclusive textual evidence, which became one of the main reasons for questioning its existence.
However, the difficulty of textual research does not mean that the existence of the Xia Dynasty can be denied. Instead, it has prompted scholars to adopt a more diverse approach to research. For example, by studying the evolution of bronze inscriptions, or using interdisciplinary approaches such as archaeology and geology, to explore the cultural and social formations that may have existed during the Xia Dynasty. At the same time, the study of early symbolic systems is also deepening, which may provide important clues for the future discovery of Xia Dynasty scripts.
The different encounters of textual interpretation in the study of Cretan civilization and Xia Dynasty reveal the complexity of the study of ancient civilizations. It involves not only linguistics and archaeology, but also knowledge from multiple disciplines such as history, anthropology, etc. In the process, scholars have continued to innovate research methods to address the unique challenges left by different civilizations.
Fourth, the interweaving of myths and legends and historical facts
When discussing the historical recognition of the Cretan civilization and the Xia dynasty, it is inevitable to confront the complex situation of the interweaving of myths and legends with historical facts. Both ancient civilizations are rich in myths and legends that have not only shaped the perception of them in later generations, but also provided clues for archaeologists and historians to study. However, how to extract historical facts from these myths and legends has become a major challenge for scholars.
The myths and legends of the Cretan civilization are mainly derived from ancient Greece literature, the most famous of which are the legends about King Minos and the Minotaur. It is said that King Minos of Crete built an intricate labyrinth in which the half-man, half-ox monster Minotaur was imprisoned. Every nine years, Athens had to pay Crete tribute to seven pairs of boys and girls as food for the Minotaur. This legend not only reflects Crete's relationship with mainland Greece, but also hints at the strength of Cretan civilization.
In 1900, when United Kingdom archaeologist Arthur · Evans excavated the ruins of a large palace in Knossos, he immediately linked it to the Minoan Palace. Although no actual labyrinth has been discovered, the complex structure of the palace may have been the source of the labyrinth legend. Evans even named the entire civilization "Minoan Civilization", a name that is still in use today.
Archaeological finds also provide some corroboration for other legends. For example, in the frescoes of the palace of Knossos, there are indeed scenes depicting people fighting with bulls. This may be the prototype of the legend of the Minotaur, reflecting the religious rituals or sporting activities of the Cretans. At the same time, a large number of marine-themed artworks have been unearthed, confirming the maritime hegemony of Crete described by ancient Greece writers.
However, the line between myths and legends and historical facts is not always clear. For example, the legendary Daedalus built a labyrinth for King Minos and created wings capable of flying. The story, while seemingly absurd, may hint at the Cretans' masterful building skills and yearning for flight. Archaeological finds do confirm that the Cretans had advanced building techniques, but the part about flight remains at the level of legends.
In contrast, the myths and legends of the Xia Dynasty are mainly derived from ancient Chinese classics, such as the "Historical Records" and the "Bamboo Book Chronicle". These legends not only chronicle the establishment and decline of the Xia dynasty, but also describe a series of events with mythological overtones.
The most famous is the legend of Dayu's water control. It is said that Dayu, the founding monarch of the Xia Dynasty, spent thirteen years managing the flood and finally succeeded in quelling the disaster. This legend not only reflects the wisdom of ancient Chinese water control, but also hints that the background of the establishment of the Xia Dynasty may be related to water conservancy projects.
Archaeologists have found some interesting clues in their attempts to verify this legend. In Henan, Shaanxi and other places, some relics of water conservancy projects that may have belonged to the Xia Dynasty have indeed been found. Although the age and scale of these ruins differ from the legend, they at least prove that a considerable level of water technology was already in place in the early Central Plains.
Another important Xia dynasty legend is about the tyranny of Xia Wei and the revolution of Shang Tang. This story not only describes the decline of the Xia dynasty, but also provides legitimacy for the rise of the Shang dynasty. While looking for evidence related to this legend, archaeologists noticed some changes in the transition period from the Erlitou culture to the Erligang culture. Some scholars have suggested that this may have reflected a regime change from Xia to Shang, but this view remains controversial due to the lack of direct evidence.
It is worth noting that some details of the legends of the Xia Dynasty, such as the use of bronzes, the construction of cities, etc., have been confirmed to some extent in archaeological discoveries. For example, the bronzes unearthed at the Erlitou site show that a fairly mature metallurgical technology had been mastered at that time. Although these discoveries do not directly prove the existence of the Xia Dynasty, they at least indicate that the social form described in the legend may have existed at that time.
The interweaving of myths and legends with historical facts presents unique challenges for researchers. On the one hand, these legends provide clues and directions for archaeological work. On the other hand, over-reliance on legends can lead to subjective assumptions by researchers. Therefore, scholars need to maintain a balance between legends and physical evidence, neither easily denying the value of legends nor blindly trusting every detail.
The cases of the Cretan civilization and the Xia dynasty show how to find a balance between myth and history. The archaeological discoveries of the Cretan civilization have provided physical evidence for many legends, turning them from mere myths into historical clues that can be studied. The study of the Xia Dynasty is more complex, with scholars needing to reason carefully between limited archaeological evidence and abundant documentary legends.
This interweaving of myth and history not only reflects the complexity of ancient civilizations, but also reflects the ongoing search for human origins. Whether it is the Cretan civilization or the Xia Dynasty, these legends carry the imagination of the ancients for the ideal society and the interpretation of history. In modern research, these legends are not only the object of study, but also a window into the way of thinking of ancient people.
5. The relationship between cultural influence and historical recognition
Cultural influence plays a crucial role in shaping the historical recognition of an ancient civilization. Although the Cretan civilization and the Xia Dynasty were far apart in time and space, their influence in later cultures has deeply influenced the recognition and evaluation of them by scholars and the public. This cultural influence is not only reflected in the fields of literature and art, but also extends to politics and philosophical thought, and even influences the direction of modern archaeology and historical research.
The cultural influence of the Cretan civilization spread mainly through ancient Greece literature and art. The Homeric epics The Iliad and the Odyssey mention Crete and its ruler Minos several times. These works were not only widely circulated in ancient Greece, but also became an important source of Western literature. Through these literary works, Cretan civilization occupies an important place in the collective memory of the Western world.
The Greece tragedy writer Euripides' work "Theseus" directly describes the story of the Athenian hero Theseus who went to Crete to kill the Minotaur. This story not only became a recurring theme in Western literature, but also influenced the imagination of Cretan civilization in later generations. For example, Renaissance painters often created paintings on the subject of the Minotaur, and these works further deepened the impression of Cretan civilization.
The Cretan civilization also had a profound influence on ancient Greece philosophical thought. Plato, in his dialogue, The Laws, described the Cretan legal system as a model for the ideal state. This view has had a wide influence on the political philosophy of later generations, and even influenced the design of political systems in some modern European countries.
In the field of archaeology, the influence of the Cretan civilization is equally significant. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, inspired by ancient Greece literature, many archaeologists began to focus on Crete. United Kingdom archaeologist Arthur · Evans' excavations at Knossos not only confirmed the existence of a Cretan civilization, but also sparked widespread interest in early civilizations in the Eastern Mediterranean. These discoveries have greatly advanced the study of archaeology and ancient history.
In contrast, the cultural influence of the Xia Dynasty was mainly reflected in traditional Chinese culture and historical concepts. As the first dynasty in Chinese history, the Xia Dynasty occupies a special place in the narrative of Chinese history. Despite the lack of conclusive archaeological evidence, the existence of the Xia Dynasty has long been regarded as an indisputable historical fact.
The records of the Xia Dynasty in ancient classics such as the Book of Shang and the Records of the Historians have had a profound impact on the formation of Chinese historical concepts. These accounts not only describe the rise and fall of the Xia Dynasty, but also create a series of far-reaching historical figures. For example, the story of Dayu's water control has not only become an important chapter in the history of Chinese water conservancy, but also regarded as a model of diligence and love for the people, which has influenced the governing philosophy of later rulers.
The Xia Dynasty also left a deep mark on traditional Chinese culture. For example, Xia Yu passed on the throne to his son Qi, creating a hereditary system in Chinese history. This system influenced China's political system for thousands of years to come. In addition, the astronomical calendars that are believed to have appeared during the Xia Dynasty, such as Xia Xiaozheng, had a significant impact on agricultural production and social life in ancient China.
In the field of literature and art, the influence of the Xia Dynasty was equally far-reaching. The famous sentence of the Tang Dynasty poet Du Fu "Stealing from Emperor Xia, I don't deceive the birds" is to borrow allusions from the Xia Dynasty to express his political ambitions. In the operas of the Ming and Qing dynasties, the image of the tyrant represented by Xia Wei often appeared, and these works not only enriched the content of literature and art, but also affected the public's perception of history to a certain extent.
The cultural influence of the Xia Dynasty is also reflected in archaeological research. At the beginning of the 20th century, with the discovery and decipherment of oracle bone inscriptions, scholars began to pay attention to the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties. This project not only promoted the development of Chinese archaeology, but also provided new methods and perspectives for exploring the Xia Dynasty. For example, the discovery and research of the Erlitou culture provides important archaeological evidence for exploring the existence of the Xia Dynasty.
It is worth noting that there were significant differences in cultural influence between the Cretan civilizations and the Xia dynasty. Cretan civilization influenced the entire Western world mainly through ancient Greece literature and art, and its influence was much wider. The influence of the Xia Dynasty was mainly confined to the Chinese cultural circle, but its influence was deeper and more long-lasting.
This difference is also reflected in academic research. The study of Cretan civilization has been international from the very beginning, attracting scholars from many countries. In contrast, Xia Dynasty studies have long been dominated by Chinese scholars, and it is only in recent years that they have begun to attract more attention from international scholars.
There is a complex relationship between cultural influence and historical recognition. On the one hand, a strong cultural influence can increase the visibility of an ancient civilization and promote the development of related research. On the other hand, too strong cultural influence may lead to preconceived notions that affect objective judgments.
The case of the Cretan civilization and the Xia dynasty illustrates this complex relationship. Because of its important position in Western culture, the Cretan civilization has long attracted the attention of the academic community, and the archaeological discoveries are also relatively rich. However, an over-reliance on descriptions in literary works has led some researchers to interpret archaeological findings too imaginatively.
The Xia Dynasty has long been regarded as an unquestionable existence because of its special place in the narrative of Chinese history. On the one hand, this concept has promoted the in-depth development of relevant research, and on the other hand, it may also affect the objective evaluation of archaeological evidence by some scholars. In recent years, with the progress of archaeological methods and the strengthening of international cooperation, the study of the Xia Dynasty has gradually moved towards a more objective and scientific path.