Everyone knows that the Qing Dynasty was the largest dynasty in Chinese history, but few people know the story behind it. In 1644, the Manchus took control of the Central Plains and established the Qing Dynasty. Over the next two hundred years, the Qing Dynasty accomplished the feat that successive dynasties had only dreamed of—expanding China's territory to 13.16 million square kilometers. This vast land is affectionately known as the "Begonia Territory" by later generations. However, is there also an unknown price hidden behind this glory? Was the Qing Dynasty's expansion of territory really its greatest, if not the only, contribution to Chinese civilization? Let's uncover history and discover the secrets behind this vast empire. How exactly did the Qing Dynasty achieve this feat? In the process, what price did it take? What does this vast territory mean for China today?
1. The glorious achievements of the Qing Dynasty in expanding its territory
Speaking of the Qing Dynasty's territorial expansion, we have to mention Emperor Yongzheng and his son Emperor Qianlong. The father and son were the mainstays of the Qing Dynasty's territorial expansion, and their exploits were beyond the reach of successive emperors.
In the ninth year of Yongzheng (1731), the head of the Dzungar tribe, Tselu Alabutan, died of illness, and his son Galdan Tseling succeeded to the throne. Emperor Yongzheng saw that the time had come, and immediately sent the general Nian Qianyao to lead the army to attack. Nian Qianyao is quite capable, he led the army all the way north, like a bamboo, and soon defeated the Dzungar department. Galdantse had no choice but to retreat to Ili.
In this battle, Emperor Yongzheng can be said to have won a great victory. Not only did he recover the Hexi Corridor, but he also expanded his territory south of the Tianshan Mountains. This land, later known as "Xinjiang", means "new territory". This feat of Emperor Yongzheng laid a solid foundation for the later Qianlong Emperor's "Ten Complete Martial Arts".
After Emperor Qianlong succeeded to the throne, he pushed the cause of expanding the territory to a climax. In the twentieth year of Qianlong (1755), there was a rebellion within the Dzungar department, and the general Bandi took the opportunity to lead the army to invade. In this battle, the Qing army was overwhelmed, and soon completely defeated the Dzungar department. Emperor Qianlong took advantage of the victory to pursue and included the entire territory of Xinjiang into the territory in one fell swoop.
However, Emperor Qianlong was not satisfied with this. He continued to send troops south, including Qinghai, Tibet, and other places. In the forty-fifth year of Qianlong (1780), the Qing army made an expedition to Burma and forced the Burmese dynasty to submit. At this point, the territory of the Qing Dynasty had reached the largest extent in history.
These moves of the Qing Dynasty to expand the territory not only solved the historical border problems of China for more than 2,000 years since the Qin Dynasty, but also left a stable and powerful China for future generations. Since then, the Western Regions have ceased to be the domain of nomads, but have become an inseparable part of China.
In Xinjiang, the Qing Dynasty established a military government with a large number of Han officials and troops. These measures have not only changed the demographic structure of the country, but have also become a central factor in political stability. Since then, Xinjiang has truly become a part of China, and it is no longer the unreachable "Western Regions".
The territory of the Qing Dynasty stretched from the border of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau to the south, to the Himalayan foothills to the southwest, to the border between Xinjiang and Afghanistan in the west, to Siberia in the north, and to the Korean Peninsula in the east. This territory can be said to be the most ideal state of defense in China's history.
In particular, the northern border would be perfect if it could be bounded by the Khingan Mountains outside Lake Baikal. From a geopolitical point of view, this border creates a delicate balance between China and Russia. Someone once half-jokingly said: "When I look at this picture, I can't wait for Great Russia to die on the battlefield between Russia and Ukraine, and the loss of a large area of land is because of the goose." "
The Qing Dynasty's expansion of territory not only made China's territory the largest in history, but also completely changed China's geopolitical landscape. Since then, China is no longer a country that is passively beaten, but a powerful country that can take the initiative. This achievement can be said to be the dream of all dynasties.
2. The historical heroes behind the expansion of the territory
The Qing Dynasty's efforts to expand its territory were inseparable from the efforts of a group of outstanding generals. These generals not only made great achievements in war, but also left a strong mark in Chinese history. Among them, the most talked about are the general Zhaohui in the Qianlong period, the god of war Fukangan, and the Sauron soldiers who made great achievements in the Tibetan campaign.
Zhao Hui, who was originally just an ordinary civil official, was in charge of managing logistics and accounting. However, the turning point of fate came in the fifteenth year of Qianlong (1750). At that time, the rebellion broke out in Xinjiang, and the Qianlong Emperor urgently needed a general who could fight well to quell the rebellion. Among the many generals, Emperor Qianlong took a fancy to Zhaohui.
Emperor Qianlong made an exception to promote Zhaohui to general, a decision that surprised many. How can a civilian official in charge of accounts lead troops to fight? However, Zhaohui proved the discernment of Emperor Qianlong with his own practical actions.
After Zhaohui led his army into Xinjiang, he adopted a steady and steady strategy. He first consolidated the logistical supply lines to ensure that the army had enough food and grass. Then, he used his experience in financial management to rationally distribute military salaries and improve the soldiers' enthusiasm for combat. Strategically, Zhaohui adopted a divide-and-rule strategy, defeating both big and small and Zhuo successively, and finally completely quelled the rebellion in Xinjiang.
Zhaohui's success not only proved the Qianlong Emperor's way of employing people, but also made great contributions to the Qing Dynasty's territorial expansion. His story was written into literary works such as "Book of Swords and Enmity" by later generations, and became a microcosm of the Qing Dynasty's territorial expansion.
Compared with Zhaohui, Fukangan can be described as a generation of war gods in the Qing Dynasty army. Fukangan came from a prominent background and was one of the most favored generals of the Qianlong Emperor. He is not only strong in martial arts, but also proficient in the art of war, and is a rare all-round talent in civil and military affairs.
In the 53rd year of Qianlong (1788), Gurkha (present-day Nepal) invaded Tibet. Emperor Qianlong immediately sent Fukangan to lead an army to quell the rebellion. Among the troops led by Fukangan, there is a special unit - the Sauron soldiers. The Sauron soldiers were the elite of the Eight Banners of the Qing Dynasty and were known for their bravery and good fighting.
Fukangan led Sauron's troops over the Himalayas and into the Tibetan Plateau. At an average altitude of more than 4,000 meters, Fukangan and his Sauron soldiers have shown remarkable adaptability. They not only overcame altitude sickness, but also maintained strong combat effectiveness in harsh climatic conditions.
In the Tibetan campaign, Fukangan adopted a series of ingenious tactics. He first sent small forces to harass the enemy army, draining the opponent's physical strength and supplies. Then, when the enemy army was exhausted, Fukangan led the main forces to launch a fierce attack. This tactic worked wonders, and the Gurkha army was defeated.
In the end, Fukangan not only succeeded in recovering Tibet, but also forced the Gurkha to sign a peace treaty, recognizing the Qing dynasty's suzerainty over Tibet. This campaign not only consolidated the Qing Dynasty's rule in Tibet, but also expanded the Qing Dynasty's sphere of influence, bringing Nepal and other neighboring countries into the Qing Dynasty's tributary system.
However, Fukangan has become a negative character in Jin Yong's martial arts novels. In "The Book of Swords and Enmity" and "The Legend of the Flying Fox", Fukangan is portrayed as a despicable villain. This depiction is very different from the historical image of Fukangan, and may reflect the mixed feelings of later generations towards the rulers of the Qing Dynasty.
The performance of Sauron's soldiers in the Tibetan campaign was even more impressive. This cavalry unit from the northeast showed amazing adaptability and combat effectiveness on the plateau. Not only did they overcome altitude sickness, but they also kept morale high in the snow and ice. The heroic performance of the Sauron soldiers made great contributions to the Qing Dynasty's recovery of Tibet.
The stories of these generals and soldiers show the hardships and efforts behind the Qing Dynasty's expansion of territory. They not only created the largest territory in the history of the Qing Dynasty, but also made important contributions to the unification and development of China. However, is there a hidden price behind these feats? How did the rule of the Qing Dynasty affect Han culture? These questions deserve further discussion.
3. The influence of Qing rule on Han culture
The rule of the Qing Dynasty had a profound impact on Han culture, both positive and negative. From cultural blending to literary prison, from the Manchu-Han fusion to the reform of the imperial examination system, the rule of the Qing Dynasty reshaped China's cultural landscape to a large extent.
First, let's look at the cultural policies of the early Qing dynasty. One of the greatest challenges facing the Shunzhi Emperor when he came to power in the Central Plains was how to rule the Han Chinese, who made up the vast majority of the population. In order to stabilize his rule, Shunzhi took a series of measures to win over Han scholars.
The most famous of these is the "Erudite Confucian Imperial Examination". This is a special type of imperial examination, which was specially established for scholars who had already achieved fame during the Ming Dynasty. Through this examination, many Ming relics were able to enter the bureaucratic system of the Qing Dynasty. This not only alleviated the resistance of Han scholars, but also injected new vitality into the rule of the Qing Dynasty.
However, this co-optation policy has not been without its challenges. During the Kangxi period, the famous "Zhuang Tingyan case" occurred. Zhuang Tingyan was a Ming Dynasty relic, and when he participated in the erudite Confucian imperial examination, he concealed his dissatisfaction with the Qing Dynasty in his answers. This case eventually led to the execution or exile of hundreds of scholars, and became the beginning of the Qing Dynasty's literary prison.
The literary prison became a major feature of the Qing Dynasty's reign. In the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong dynasties, literary prison cases emerged one after another. One of the most famous is the "Nanshan Collection Case" in the Yongzheng period. The case stemmed from a collection of poems called "Nanshan Collection", in which the author satirized Yongzheng's usurpation. Yongzheng was furious and not only executed the author, but also implicated hundreds of readers and bibliophiles.
This kind of cultural repression policy has undoubtedly brought tremendous pressure to Han intellectuals. In order to protect themselves, many people have to be cautious in their words and actions, and even give up criticizing reality. To a certain extent, this inhibited the innovation and development of Han culture.
However, the rule of the Qing Dynasty was not all about the suppression of Han culture. In some ways, the Qing Dynasty instead promoted the development and spread of Han culture. Take the Kangxi Emperor as an example, he was not only proficient in Han culture, but also personally presided over the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary. This dictionary has become an important tool for the study of Chinese characters in later generations, and has played an important role in the standardization and standardization of the Chinese language.
In addition, the Qing Dynasty also promoted the integration of Manchu and Han cultures. The Manchu rulers actively studied Han culture and introduced it to the Central Plains. This cultural blending eventually formed a unique "Manchu and Han" culture. For example, the costumes of the Qing Dynasty integrated the characteristics of the Manchu and Han ethnic groups, forming a unique "cheongsam" culture.
In terms of the imperial examination system, the Qing Dynasty also made important reforms. In order to prevent Han scholars from monopolizing officialdom, the Qing Dynasty established the "Manchu and Han Division" system. This system stipulates that a certain percentage of Manchu candidates must be guaranteed to pass the imperial examination. Although this system limited the promotion space of Han scholars to a certain extent, it also promoted the exchange and integration of Manchu and Han cultures.
In the later period of the Qing Dynasty, with the invasion of Western forces, traditional Chinese culture faced unprecedented challenges. Faced with this situation, some enlightened Qing officials began to promote the idea of "learning from the Middle School as the body and learning from the West as the application". This kind of thinking tries to absorb the advanced technology and system of the West while maintaining traditional Chinese culture. Although this attempt ultimately failed to save the fate of the Qing Dynasty, it provided important ideas for cultural reform in later generations.
In terms of education, the Qing Dynasty also made some important reforms. For example, the "Siku Quanshuguan" established during the Qianlong period not only collected and sorted out a large number of ancient books, but also cultivated a group of scholars who were proficient in ancient literature. These scholars later became the backbone of "Sinology" and made important contributions to the inheritance and development of traditional Chinese culture.
However, the cultural policies of the Qing Dynasty also brought some negative effects. For example, in order to consolidate their rule, the Qing rulers vigorously promoted the Manchu language. As a result, some important historical documents were only available in Manchu, which made it difficult for later generations to study. At the same time, the Qing Dynasty's literary prison also led to the destruction of many precious documents, causing irreparable cultural losses.
Fourth, the contribution of the Qing Dynasty in science and technology, economy, etc
Although the Qing Dynasty is often regarded as the end of a feudal dynasty in history, its technological and economic contributions cannot be ignored. From the improvement of agricultural technology to the prosperity of commercial trade, from the introduction of science and technology to the development of handicrafts, the Qing Dynasty has left a deep imprint in many fields.
First, let's focus on the contribution of the Qing Dynasty in agriculture. During the Kangxi period, a policy called "spreading the land into the mu" brought great changes to agricultural production. This policy incorporated the capitation tax into the land tax, which was originally levied on a per capita basis, greatly reducing the burden on the peasants. After the implementation of the policy, the peasants' enthusiasm for production has been greatly improved, and agricultural productivity has been significantly improved.
At the same time, the Qing Dynasty also actively promoted new agricultural techniques. For example, during the Yongzheng period, the government vigorously promoted the cultivation technology of "improved rice seeds". This technology has greatly improved rice yields by selecting high-quality rice seeds. It has been documented that rice production has even doubled in some areas after adopting this technique.
In terms of the improvement of agricultural tools, the Qing Dynasty also had many innovations. During the Qianlong period, a new type of plough called "Quyuan plow" was invented. This plough is lighter than the traditional straight plough and is suitable for use in the southern paddy fields. Its popularization greatly improved the farming efficiency of farmers and became a symbol of the progress of agricultural technology in the Qing Dynasty.
In addition to agriculture, the Qing dynasty also made significant progress in handicrafts. Taking porcelain making as an example, Jingdezhen's ceramic craftsmanship reached its peak during the Qing Dynasty. The three emperors of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong all attached great importance to the production of ceramics and personally participated in the design and supervision. New techniques such as "pastel" and "enamel" that appeared during this period not only enriched the types of porcelain, but also greatly improved the artistic value of porcelain.
The silk industry in the Qing Dynasty also developed considerably. The silk production technology in Suzhou, Hangzhou and other places has been continuously improved, and the silk woven is exquisite. In particular, the revival of "Song Jin" was a bright spot in the development of the silk industry in the Qing Dynasty. This long-lost ancient brocade weaving technique was rediscovered and improved in the Qing Dynasty, and the brocade woven was dazzling and became an important part of the Qing Dynasty tribute.
In terms of science and technology, the Qing Dynasty, although lagging behind the West as a whole, also had some notable achievements. For example, in the field of astronomy, the Qing Dynasty introduced advanced technology from the West. During the Kangxi period, the Jesuit missionary Nan Huairen and others were invited to participate in the compilation of the Chongzhen Almanac, which greatly improved the accuracy of the Chinese calendar.
In medicine, the Qing Dynasty also had some important advances. For example, the Jinjian of Yizong, compiled during the Qianlong period, systematically summarized the theory and practice of traditional Chinese medicine, and became an important reference for later generations to study traditional Chinese medicine. In addition, the Qing Dynasty also began to come into contact with Western medicine. For example, during the Qianlong period, the British physician Alexander Pearson set up the first Western-style hospital in Guangzhou, opening a precedent for the exchange of Chinese and Western medicine.
On the economic front, the contribution of the Qing Dynasty was mainly reflected in the prosperity of commercial trade. With the full implementation of the "One Whip Law", the monetary economy has been further developed. Merchants from all over the country, such as Hui merchants and Jin merchants, were active all over the country, promoting the prosperity of the commodity economy.
It is particularly worth mentioning that the "sea ban" policy implemented in the early Qing Dynasty was loosened during the Kangxi period. In the twenty-third year of the Kangxi reign (1684), the imperial court promulgated the "Decree of Exhibiting the Sea", allowing coastal residents to go to sea to trade. The implementation of this policy has greatly promoted trade between China and Southeast Asian countries.
With the development of foreign trade, some new forms of commerce have also emerged. For example, the "Thirteen Lines" in Guangzhou was an important trading institution that emerged during this period. These trading houses monopolized trade with Western countries and became an important bridge connecting China and the West. Although the "Thirteen Lines" system was later criticized for its monopolistic nature, its role in promoting trade exchanges between China and the West cannot be ignored.
In the late Qing Dynasty, China was forced to open its doors with the invasion of Western powers. Although the process was fraught with humiliation and suffering, it also provided an opportunity for China to introduce advanced Western technology. For example, the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, established during the Westernization Movement, not only produced China's first warship in the modern sense, but also trained a group of talents who mastered Western technology.
5. The historical legacy of the Qing Dynasty and its influence on modern China
As the last feudal dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing Dynasty ruled for 268 years and left a deep mark on the long river of Chinese history. Despite the eventual demise of the Qing Dynasty, its legacy still has an important impact on modern China. These impacts cover political, economic, cultural, diplomatic and other aspects, with both positive and negative aspects.
In terms of political system, certain practices of the Qing Dynasty had a profound impact on the political system of modern China. For example, although the "Eight Banners System" implemented in the Qing Dynasty was a form of military organization, the idea of "leading the government with the military" contained in it influenced the later political system to a certain extent. In addition, the "Prime Minister's Yamen" system in the late Qing Dynasty, as the prototype of modern China's diplomatic institutions, provided a reference for the establishment of China's diplomatic system later.
The Qing Dynasty's administrative division system also had an important impact on modern China. For example, the Qing Dynasty incorporated Xinjiang and Tibet into its territory and implemented special administration, which provided the historical basis for the system of regional ethnic autonomy in modern China. At the same time, the Qing Dynasty's rule and administration of Taiwan has also become an important historical basis for modern China to handle the Taiwan issue.
On the economic front, certain policies and practices of the Qing Dynasty had a profound impact on the economic development of modern China. For example, although the "One Whip Law" implemented by the Qing Dynasty was a tax system, it contained the idea of "monetization", which laid the foundation for the modernization and transformation of China's economy later. In addition, although the "Westernization Movement" in the late Qing Dynasty failed to save the fate of the Qing Dynasty, the idea of "middle school as the body and Western learning as the application" had a profound impact on the later modernization process of China.
Culturally, the legacy of the Qing Dynasty is of great significance to the formation of modern Chinese culture. For example, the Siku Quanshu compiled by the Qing Dynasty is not only the largest book series in ancient China, but also an important source of modern Chinese cultural inheritance. The literary works of the Qing Dynasty, such as Dream of the Red Chamber and Strange Tales from Liao Zhai, are still treasures of Chinese literature and have had a profound impact on the development of modern Chinese literature.
On the diplomatic front, the lessons of the Qing Dynasty's history have had an important impact on modern China's foreign policy. The weakness and incompetence of the Qing Dynasty in the face of invasion by Western powers in the latter part of the Qing Dynasty became an important reference for modern Chinese foreign policymaking. The failure of the policy of "closing the country to the outside world" has also made modern China pay more attention to opening up to the outside world and international exchanges.
The scientific and technological legacy of the Qing Dynasty has also had an impact on modern China. For example, scientific and technological works such as the Compendium of Materia Medica and the Complete Book of Agricultural Administration compiled by the Qing Dynasty are still important references for traditional Chinese science and technology. The introduction of Western science and technology in the late Qing Dynasty, such as shipbuilding technology and military technology, laid the foundation for the development of modern science and technology in China.
However, the historical legacy of the Qing Dynasty is not all positive. For example, the Qing rulers' policy of "Manchu and Han partition" deepened the estrangement between ethnic groups to a certain extent, and this effect has continued into modern times. The corruption and incompetence of the late Qing Dynasty also became an important warning in modern China's fight against corruption and clean government.
Certain cultural policies of the Qing dynasty, such as the literal prison, had a negative impact on the intellectual development of Chinese intellectuals. To a certain extent, this influence has continued to modern times and has become one of the obstacles to China's ideological emancipation.
On the economic front, the policy of closing the country to the outside world and the backward mode of production in the late Qing Dynasty caused China to miss the opportunity of the industrial revolution, and this backwardness directly affected the economic development of modern China.
The Qing Dynasty's foreign relations also left a complex legacy for modern China. The signing of a series of unequal treaties not only resulted in the cession of territory and the loss of sovereignty, but also brought many challenges to modern China's diplomacy. The Hong Kong issue, for example, was a legacy of the Qing Dynasty and was not resolved until 1997.
However, the legacy of the Qing Dynasty is not limited to the negatives. For example, the Qing rulers' emphasis on ethnic unity provided a useful reference for ethnic policy in modern China. The Qing Dynasty's effective management of the frontier areas also provided a historical basis for modern China to safeguard national unity and territorial integrity.
The impact of the Qing Dynasty's legacy on modern China is manifold, with both positive and negative aspects. How to correctly understand and deal with these historical legacies is an important issue facing modern China. This requires us to look at the history of the Qing Dynasty with an objective and rational attitude, and to draw on the useful experiences and lessons learned from them, so as to better promote the process of China's modernization.